MARCH, 1905. 



BULLETIN 226. 



CORNELL UNIVERSITY. 

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION OF 

THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE. 

Department of Horticulture (Extension Work). 

AN APPLE ORCHARD SURVEY 

I OF 

Wayne County, New York. 



UNDER THE DIRECTION OF 

JOHN CRAIG. 



Part I — The Apple Industry, Part II — Geology, 



BY G. F. WARREN, 

Fellow in Agriculture. 



BY W. E. McCOURT, 

Fellow in Geology. 



ITHACA, N. V. 
PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY. 



SB 363 
.C8 
Copy 1 



1905. 



BULLETIN 226. 



CORNELL UNIVERSITY. 

AGRICULTURAL LXPERIMENT STATION OF 

THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE 

Department of Horticulture (Hxtension Work). 



AN APPLE ORCHARD SURVEY 

OF 

Wayne County, New York. 



rXDER Tine DIRECTION OP 

JOHN CRAIG. 



Part I — Thh Apple Industry, 

BY G. F. WARREN, 

Fellow in Agriculture. 




Part II — Geology, 

BY W. E. McCOURT, 

Fellow In Geology. 



ITHACA, N. ^. 
PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY 






ORGAN IZATIOX 
Of the Cornell Unixeksity Ackkultukal Experiment Station. 



BOARD 01' CONTROL. 
the trustees of the uni\'i:ksity. 



THE AGRICULTURAL COI.LECiE .\N1) SIWTJON UOliNCIL. 

JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN. Prcsulent of the Umversitv. 

FRANKLIN C. CORNELL, Truster of the L'niversity. 

LIBERTY II. BAILEY. Director of the AgricuUnral College and Experiment 

Station. 
EMMONS L. WILLIAMS. Treasurer of the Lniversity. 
JOHN H. COM STOCK. Professor of Entomology. 
THOMAS F. HUNT, Professor of Agronomy. 



EXPERIMENTING STAFF. 

LIBERTY II. liAILEY, Director. 

JOHN HENRY CO.MSTOCK. i^ntomology. 

HENRY II. WING, Anim.al llushandry. 

GEORGE F. ATKINSON. P.otany. 

JOLIN CRAIG, Horticulture 

THOMAS E. IIL'NT. Agronomy. 

RAYMOND A. PEARSON, Dairy Industry. 

JAY A. BONSTEEL, Soil Investigation. 

MARK V. SLINGERLAND, Entomology. 

GEORGE \\\ C A VAN AUG H, Chemistry. 

JOHN L. STONE, Agronomy. 

JAMES E, RICE, Poultry llushandry. 

STEVENSON W. FLETCHER, Horticulture. 

JOHN W. GILMORE, Agronomy. 

HERBERT H. WHETZEL, Plant Pathology. 

SAMUEL ERASER, Agronomy. 

JAMES A. BIZZELL, Chemistry. 

JOHN M. TRUE^IAN, Animal ilu.shandrv and Dairv Industry. 

CHARLES E. HUNN. Horticulture. 

Office of the Director. 17 Morrill Hall. 

The regular hulletms cd" ihe Station are sent free t(j persons residing in New Yorl 
State who recpiest them. 



C College of Agriculture. Cornell University, 

Ithaca, X. Y. 

,r^ Hon. Charles A. Wieting. Conniiissioiier of Acrricnlturc: 
^ Sir. — At the first annual meeting of the Fruit Growers' Society of 
Western New York, held at Rochester in January, 1856, the following" 
question was a suhject of lively dehate : " Can the cultivation of fruits for 
market on an extensive scale be recommended to the farmers of Western 
Xew York ? " 

One of the most emphatic parts of the discussion was that contributed 
by I^atrick r.arr_\-, who explained the westward trend of wheat-growing 
and called attention, tt^ the natural advantages offered by Western Xew 
York for commercial fruit-growing. He opened his discussion as follows : 
" I would answer without the slightest hesitation — yes. The circum- 
stances in which Western X"ew York is placed to-da\- are quite different 
from those of a few years ago. The Great West has been opened up by 
railroads, and the fanners of Illinois, Wisconsin, and the Western States 
can send forward their wheat and other grain crops to the seaboard with 
rapidity and at cheap rates. This has created a vast competition for our 
farmers. 

" Here our farming lands are worth from $50 to $100 per acre, while 
ihe\- are worn and need manure. In the West the richest and finest soils 
under the sun can be bought for ^4 or $5 per acre, ready for the plow. 
The weevil, too. of late Acars has made sad work with the wheat crops; 
and is it not high time that the farmer should make some inquir_\- con- 
cerning other objects of culture to which he ma_\' aj^propriate his lands 
and invest his skill and capital to greater advantage? 

" It seems to me it is, and I think this society should come forward 
and suggest a mc^re extensive culture of fruits." 

Mr. Barry's opinions were challenged : but time has seen the fulfilment 
of them. It is now our privilege, after the lapse of about fifty years, to 
begin a survey to determine what the status of this great fruit industry has 
come to be. 

The work herein described was performed in the season of 1903 ; and 
this lUilletin comprises a part of the annual report of that year. 

L. H. Bailey. 

Director. 



PREFACE. 



At the summer meeting of the New York State Fruit-Growers' Asso- 
ciation held at Olcott Beach in i[)02, the writer made the suggestion 
that a careful survey of the principal orcharding regions of the State 
should form a definite part of the function of the society. The sug- 
gestion met with the approval of the executive, but could not be 
carried out for lack of men and funds. While the project, of necessity, 
lay dormant with the society, its importance was immediately realized 
by former Director Roberts of the Cornell Experiment Station, who, 
the following year, gave the necessary authorization and provided the 
funds from Experiment Station resources to make a beginning, and 
the work was started in June, 1903. 

Purposes of an orchard survey. — The purposes of such a survey are 
manifold : 

1. To correlate geologic and soil characters with orchard conditions. 

2. To compare successt-s and failures, and ascertain underlying- 
causes. 

3. To investigate methods of orchard management and determine 
the influence of each. 

4. Finally, and in short, to collect and tabulate such a mass of data 
upon practical apple-growing, as will place many moot questions beyond 
the range of peradventure and furnish indisputal)le evidence iov the 
assistance of those who are horticultural leaders and teachers. 

The benefits of feeding, of tillage, of pruning, of spraying are 
admitted by many ; but. as a matter of fact, the knowledge is made use 
of by comparatively few. We hear much of the occasional progressive 
and successful orchardist with his twenty-five to fifty acre well-cared- 
for orchard, but we do not hear of scores of apple-growers maintain- 
ing from five to ten acres, who are not convinced at heart that spraying 
pays, that the tree needs feeding for the apples it bears, or that there 
is anything in pruning aside from lopping off a limb at a convenient 
place when it interferes with a wagon, or another limb. Such masses 
of facts as mav be collected bv examining the soil and condition of 



232 EuLLF/riN 226. 

growth of the trees in luuuh-eds of orcliards, and the uncompromising 
conchisions which the results of tabulations furnish, are needed to 
convince those persons who are uniuoved 1)y "" comfortable theorizing'." 
Stich facts are furnished in abundance in the following pages. They 
corroborate the best teachings of Cornell and other experiment sta- 
tions during the past ten years, and should furnish a great incentive 
toward the wiser manag'ement of our apple orchards in this great 
apple-growing State. 

Iloic flic Surrey a'as conducted. — The work was placed in the immedi- 
ate charge of Mr. G. F. Warren, who. equipped with an experiment 
station credential (which he was never called upon to use), a soil auger, 
note-book and camera, all mounted on a l)icycle. made a beginning at 
Walworth, in Wayne county, in June, 1903. 

Scope of the surrey. — At hrst we planned to examine every orchard in 
the count V. This we found to be impracticable after a month had 
been spent in the single township of W'alworth. Mr. Warren spent three 
months in the county, and, after examining every orchard in Walworth 
township, investigated nearly all above five acres in extent in the town- 
ships adjoining on the north and the south. Idiis carved off a character- 
istic strij) of country from the west end and furnished a mass of data, 
from one carefully examined section, with which to compare other data 
collected in a less concentrated manner. 

The work was started at Walworth, for here it Avas that orcharding- 
received its greatest impetus in the county. Sixty years ago there 
were large numbers of small seedling orchards scattered about, bearing- 
good, bad and indifferent fruit with j)racticall\- no care. Such were 
the conditions when T. ( i. Yeomans moved to Wayne county and 
becanie interested in fruit-growing. He soon started a nursery and 
for nearly half a centur\- the firm of T. (T Yeomans & Sons grew 
apple-trees and urged the planting of apple-trees upon their neighbors. 
The senior member of the tirm set the exaniple himself by planting- 
more than one hundred and twenty-fi\'e acres of apples. Baldwin, 
Greening. King, S]>w S]Mtzenl)urg and Roxburv Russet were, and are 
to-day, leading varieties in \\'ayne and the Lake Ontario counties. 
Mr. Yeomans believed in tillage and practiced it. 

Ackiio-a'ledgiiicnt. — To Mr. L. T. Yeomans and E. L. Yeomans, of 
\Yalworth, where the work l)egan, we are nuich indebted for friendly 
counsel and heliTul suggestions; to the fruit-growers of the coimty 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 2t,t, 

we oft'er our thanks for tlie manner in whicli they met the " Experi- 
ment Station Agents " and freely placed at their disposal the results 
of such observations and experience as their years in orcharding had 
brought them. It is hoped that this pamphlet will in some measure 
return such favors as we gratefully acknowledge on behalf of the held 
workers. 

John Craig. 



PART I 



THE APPLE INDUSTRY OF WAYNE COUNTY, 

NEW YORK, 



G. F. WARREN. 



CONTENTS. 



Page. 

INTRODUCTION 241-247 

The field work 241 

The degree of accuracy of the reports 244 

^Method of making computations 245 

Work in Orleans county ' , 246 

General observations on tlic work 246 

ClfAPTRK 1. 

The Magnitude of the Ai'im.k I xdlstkv 249-259 

Fruit production per capita 249 

Magnitude of the apple crop 250 

Production of evaporated apples 251 

Value of orchard products of the various states 253 

Exports of apples, 185 1- 1904 255 

Area devoted to apples in Wayne county 256 

Development of the commercial orchard 257 

CHAPTER It. 

Tillage 261-272 

Acreage of tilled and untilled orchards 261 

Yields of tilled and untilled orchards 262 

Does tillage pay ? 264 

Results of treatment not immediately apparent 267 

Methods of tillage 269 

Methods of sod treatment 269 

CHAPTER 111. 

Ferthjz.vtion 2'JT,-2y~ 

Fertilizers used 2'/t, 

Fertilization and yield 274 

Necessity of fertilization 274 

Relative amounts of plant-food removed l)y the a])])le crop and !>y the 

wheat crop 274 

Maniu'e shipped in from cities 276 

Manure secured by feeding cattle 2~U 

Method of applying manure ^77 

Cover-crops ^77 



Jj8 . Bl'LLl'/nX 22(). 

CIIAi'ri'.R 1\'. 

Pace. 

Pki \IX(; 278-J88 

i'Ornicr nK-tliods of prunint^ 27S 

I li)\\ wounds Ik'.'iI 27S 

l\cnio\'al i>f large linil)s 279 

" Stub " pruning 2S0 

L'se of paint mi wounds 28,? 

Thinning tlic tops 2<S4 

I'runing should \ary Avitli the thrift of the trees 284 

The best lime to prune 285 

1 low to treat crotehes 280 

Number of scaffold limbs 2><7 

CIIAI'TI'.K \', 

Si'K.\vi.\(; . 289-294 

The extent of the praetii-e 2^^) 

[\ el at ion of spray nig In yiidds and |)rices 289 

Kinds of sprays used 290 

'idle best time t" s])ray 292 

Winter treatnu'iit fur ai)ple-scab 29,^ 

Method of ajiplying the sjiray 293 

Russeting of the fruit 293 

1 Xamage \'< U ihage frc mi spra\ nig 294 

rii.\i'i'i':R VI. 

l\K\o\'.\TiX(. .\x .Xi'i'i.K Ok(11.\kii IN Wkstekx Xk.w X'okk. I>\' Christian 
I'lics :■■ ■ -95"-9^ 

("I! AriKK \'ll 

NrMI'.KK OK TkKF.S I'F.K .\lKK .\X1) l)lSr,\N( F, TiKT W KK \ IkKES 299-3O7 

Xumbi-r ■ n' trees per aeri- 2()9 

i'rees planted ton ehwelv 291) 

F.ffeels of eliise jilanting on yields and heaUh ,iOO 

Top-gra fling or |)rnimig (.'xery other row 305 

I low ti> ihni .^03 

CIIAI'IRR \'lli. 

Ace of the ( )krii.\Kiis .108-312 

Date of planting .w8 

X'iehls at different ages ,?o!^ 

Planting yoimg orrhard^ .^^o 

riLXPTPR 1\. 

SoiFs .\xi) Son. Problems .ii3",i-4 

d'npocR.M'in' — Topographical regions 3 ',5 



An Appli: Orchard Survkv or \V.\^■xl•: County. New York. 239 

Page. 

Soils — The soil types 315 

Miami stony loam 316 

Alton stony loam 316 

Miami silt loam 317 

Miami line sand 317 

Ontario gravelly loam 317 

Relation of the soil to yield of apples 317 

Snmmary of the soil factor 318 

Dr.\in.\(;e — The natural drainage 319 

Losses canseil by lack uf drainage 3J0 

CHAPTER X. 

Elev.\tion.s and Exposures 325-326 

Sites 3^5 

Relation of the sites and yieUN 325 

Aspects, or exposures 325 

Relation of tlie aspects and yields 326 

CHAPTER XI. 

.\ Comparison of Rented Orchards with Those Managed bv the Owner, 327-329 

Census of rented orchards 327 

Effects of the rental system on the orchards ^^2^ 

Suggestions and reflections on the rented farm 329 

CHAPTEP XTI. 

\^ARIET1ES 330-332 

The varieties grown 330 

Variations within the variety — the selection of scions 3_^0 

CHAPTER Xm. 

Enemies of the Apple 333-348 

List of the more serious enemies 333 

The Appi-E-Scap. Eungus — Its importance 335 

What is the seal) fungus ? 335 

Relation of the weather to the development of scab 2,}J 

Relative damage on different varieties of apples 338 

Relation to other fungi ^ 338 

Treatment ' i})'-) 

Leaf Spot — Caused by the scab fungus 339 

Other causes of leaf spot 34° 

Leaf-blister mite 340 



240 Bulletin 226. 

Page. 

The Apple-Tree Canker — Description _:i4i 

The extent of the injury by canker 341 

The cause of tlie cankers 344 

Treatment 344 

Collar Rut — Occurrence and (lescrii)tion 345 

The cause of the rot 346 

Treatment 34(1 

CfTAPTKR XIV. 

Yields, Markets and Prices 349~355 

Total yields in Wayne county 349 

Average yields per acre 349 

.\\erage \ ields per tree 349 

Variations in yield 350 

The evaporating industry 350 

How the crop is disposed of 351 

General considerations concerninLj marketing 353 

Average prices 354 

Average income per acre 354 

SUMMARY 356 

CONCLUSION 360 

REFERENCES 361 



INTRODUCTION. 



GENERAL METHOD OE \\T)RK. 

TJie Held zvork. — The lield work was done between June lo and Sep- 
tember 12, 1903. Nearly all of this time was spent in the apple orchards. 

In Walworth township, 
which is in the center 
of the west part of the 
county, every orchard as 
large as one acre was ex- 
amined. In nearly ever_\- 
case the owner was inter- 
viewed for statistics on 
variet}'. age, fertilization, 
tillage, spraying", past 
troubles. }-ields, market, 
price, etc. The (irchard 
was examined in order in 
determine the site, aspect, 
area, distance between 
trees, present treatment, 
present condition of health 

and crop, pruning, diseases, insects, etc. A three-foot soil auger was 
a i)art of the outfit, and frequent borings were made to determine the 
physical condition of the soil, texture, structure and the drainage con- 
ditions. Samples for laboratory analyses were taken of the ditferent 
soil types. In short, an eft'ort was made to study whatever factors 
enter into the successful production of apples. All the information 
obtained was entered in the blank report |)rovided for that purpose (see 
Fig. 38). These reports are preserved in the Department of Horticulture 
for reference for the future worker and are, of course, not open to the 
public. The position and approximate size of each orchard with its 
number is shown on the map prepared by the United States Geological 

241 




Fic. 37. — Map shozciiig the location of jrayiw and 
Orleans cotnitics, A'i'Ti' Vorh. 



242 



nini-iriiN 22G. 



u 



'A in 



y. 





H 




-f' 


!> 


H 


pj 


C/J 


l^ 


H 


^ 


p^ 


't~> 


~ 


in 


r'. 


Q 


2 


C^ 


p^ 


< 


X 


i-H 


u^ 


G 


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c 



:^, 



Pi 



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V 



-S- H 



■^1 T^; 



o ^ 






^i 'Ni 



■ : <U --- ; . H . . 









AxN Apple Orchard Sinui-.v of Wavxk County, Nfav ^'oRK. 243 

vSurvev. These maps show tlie 20-foot ccjiitoiir Hues on a scale of one 
incli to a mile (see Fij;". 39). This method of locatins4' the orchard makes 
it possihle tq look it up at any time in the future. Very many other 
items were determined, some of which were entered under " o'eneral 



ms^,m^ 



A< 



>t] 



U\c.. 39. — ,/ reduced j^lioloiiral^Ii of llir field map of U'alwoiili lo:cnsl:ip, sliowiug tin 
j'osilion and. iiiiiiiber of llie orchards. Tins niaf^ i^uis on a scale of four incJies to tin 
mile. 



ohserx'ations."" and some of which were recc^rded in a notedjook kept 
for that pur{)Ose. 

In ( )ntario townshi]), which lies between the lake and Walworth, 
ever}' orchard as large as ten acres and a numl)cr of smaller ones were 
likewise examined. Nearly all the other orchards were seen, and a 
comparison made with those that were carefully recorded. 



244 BuLLirriN 226. 

In Macedon township, which cxtciuls from Walworth to the 
southern houndary of the county, every orcliard as lar^c as ten acres 
and nearly all of those as laroe as five acres were examined. l*racticallv 
all the other orchards of this town were examined sufficiently to be able 
to make comparisons with those recorded. 

ddiese three tow'nshi])s _i;a\e a re[)resentative north and south section 
of the count}". The differences in going north and south are very 
much greater than those from east to west. 

Tlic degree of aeenraey of the reports. — The results are based on all 
the orchards of Walworth as large as one acre, or 443 orchards con- 
taining i.//^^^ 2 acres: and on 131 orchards of the remainder of the county 
containing 1,987 '_. acres. This is between one-fifth and one-sixth of the 
orchards of the countw Trobably at least one-third of the orchards were 
examined more en- less carefully. The careful records were made of the 
above number. 

The location, site, aspect, area, distance between trees, present treat- 
ment, pruning, present condition, i)resent troubles, soil and soil condi- 
tions were determined by the observer, aided l)v any suggestions that the 
owner might give. 

The ages are a question of meuK^ry and sometimes of hearsay. The 
appearance of the trees would usualU- enable the inspector to a\'oid 
an\- large error. The past trouliles except canker-worm, tent cater- 
])illar and scab or " fungus "" are not often given, as they are not 
recognized by many growers. This does not by any means imlicate 
that no other important enemies have been ])resent. Some have left 
their effects so apparent that the observer coidd, wdthout difficulty, 
fill in the ])ast troul)les. The varieties, methods of former treatment, 
s])raying, fertilization, etc., are fairly accurate, except that the amount 
of fertilization is not often known. The market and ])rice ])er l)ushel 
are ([uite accurate. The farmers are ])ractically all glad to be able to 
bel]) in the work of the l^xperiment Station. Thev imderstand that 
the rt'])orts are confidential, and therefore ha\-e no incenti^•e to give 
too high yields. The oidv limit to the accuracx' is the memory of the 
grower. The a])ple crop is, however, the chief crop and is therefore well 
remcnd)ere(l. The yields are usually the result of measiu'ement, as 
the |)eople remember the number of bushels, or the number of pounds, 
or rememl)er the income and price, from which the yield can be 
computed. 



An Applk Okciiard Siir\i:v of W'avnk County. Xi.w "S^ork. 245 

The yields for 1903 were seeured by letters to the growers. They 
doubtless average too high, for those who had a very small erop some- 
times considered it too small to be worth reporting. 

The records of the i(;02 yields are the most complete and the most 
accurate of all. 

Method of making flic coiiipiitafions. — Since every orchard in Wal- 
worth was examined, all computations ha\e Ijeen made for this town 
by itself, and separate ones made for the south and for the north parts 
of the county. In some cases CJntario and Maccdon townships were 
each considered separately. Nearly all these computations when 
yields are concerned are made for the crops of 1900, 1901, 1902, 1903. 
"i'he conclusions have almost invariably been the same for each year 
and for each part of the county. In this bulletin they have, in most cases, 
ben sunmiarized under two heads. Walworth and the remainder of the 
count}'. 

In computing- }-ields under various methods of treatment, the yiehls 
of the orchards set before 18S0 are ordinarily used. Trees set since 
that date have mostly not arrived at maturity. 

In computing any one item the others have generally been ignored. 
The justification for this lies in the fact that so many orchards have 
been examined that other items will balance. For example, in deter- 
mining the average yields for orchards having trees set at different 
distances apart, no attention has l)een given to the care of the orchartl. 
There are orchards set at all distances that have been well cared for 
and others that are neglected. The large number examined makes 
an average of conditions. The danger c^f this method of making calcu- 
lations lies in possible coordinate factors. The man who tills his 
orchard may be the man who sprays. Some points of this kind are 
discussed under the different chapters. To test the method, some compu- 
tations have been made on the l)asis of sub-groups of orchards otherwise 
similarly treated. The results have scMuetimes been changed in absolute 
amounts, but have been unchanged in their relation to each other, or have 
been so slightlv changed as not to alter the conclusions to which ihey 
])oint. 

The independent calculations for \\\alworth township and for the 
north and the south ])arts of the county, furnish additional checks. 
There are usually twelve independent calculations — one for each of 
these divisions for each of the four vears. When these results all 



246 Bulletin 226. 

point to the same conclusion, they would seem to establish it beyond 
any reasonable doubt. In this report the results are frequently sum- 
marized in order to save space. There might seem to be some danger 
of a large orchard controlling the average, but in no case of any 
importance has such an orchard changed the relalixe ortler oi the 
results. 

Jn making most of the computations, there were orchards for which 
the information or yields were not secured. These were, of course, 
omitted, just as an orchard ■ that was not seen. The computations 
always include e\ery orchard for which the particular data were 
secured. 

Work in Orlciiiis coinily. — During the summer of 1904, orchards to 
the number ot 5O4. including 4,881 acres, were similarly examined in 
( )rleans county. In this county the writer was assisted by Mr. C. Hues. 
Some of the pictures in tliis report were obtained in ihat county. Many 
references are also made to it,, but all the tabulations are from Wayne 
count). The tables for the ( )rleans count}' work will be ])ublished later. 

(j\'iicra/ (ihscmitions cii the work. — The method of doing the work and 
the kind of information sought were much changed during the progress 
of the investigation. In the beginning the t\'pe of soil was thought to be 
of much more im])ortance than it realh' is. The most important points 
were not considered in the tirst few rej^orts. The relative impijrtance of 
the ditiferent problems was better seen as the work ])rogressed. The 
report blank ( I'dg. 38) is \'er\- ditferent from the first one used. Many 
im])rovements were made when similar work was started in ( )rleans 
count}-, but there are others that will be made if another connt}' is studied. 

d he succeeding pages ma\' l)e said to l)e results of exj^eriments of the 
l)ast seventy-five years in a])]:)le-growing in W'a^ne countw " i'",\er\- farm 
is an experiment station and everv farmer the director thereof." lUit 
when these experiments are viewed singh', there are so man\- factors that 
the success or failure is as likely to be assigned t(^ a wrong cause as to 
the right out'. As a result we ha\'e the great diversit\' of ojiinion that 
exists among ap])le-growers. It is b\- studxing and tabulating results 
from large nmiibers of orchards that important and unimportant factors 
can be ]iroperl\- correlated. 

The standards in this bulletin are not ideals, but are in all cases based 
on what successful men are doing. No one man is following all of them, 
but each one has been tried. It is impossible to give credit to each 



An Apple Orchard Survkv oi- Wavxi; Couniv, Xi:\v York. 247 

fanner who has aided in the work, for that would mean to enumerate 
six hundred in Wayne eounty and an equal number in ( Jrleans county, 
but 1 can not refrain' from mentioning- the willingness with which nearly 
every one gave the information about his orchard and al)out his successes 
and failures. It would be very hard to iind a re^^ion where the farmers 
are more willing; to cooperate with every enterprise of the experiment 
stations. In writing- this bulletin, I have tried to keep in mind the many 
questions asked by the farmers, as well as to present the tables of the 
results of various methods of treatment. 



248 



Bulletin 226. 




Making af'fh'' tmrrrls. 













Hauling the barrels to the orchard. 



CHAPTER I. 
The Magnitude of the Apple Industry. 

Fruit production per capita. — The commercial demand in the United 
States for fresh fruit has been created during the past fifty years. The 
small quantity of fruit that was produced half a centurv ago was 
largely used for wine and cider manufacture, but fresh fruit and canned 
fruit are now among the staple articles of diet for the laborer as well 
as for the wealthy. Table i shows that the value of the orchard 
products on the farm has increased from 33 cents per capita in 1850. 
to $1.11 per capita in 1900. If all fruits are included the value would 
he about fifty per cent greater, the amount for 1900 being $1.74 per 
capita (see Table 2). Much more than these amounts must be spent 

Table i. 

Rclati^'c increase of f'oftilalioii and cf I'aluc of orchard products from the census 

reports. 



Population. 



1850^ 23, 191,876 

i860 31,443,321 

1870 38,558,371 

1880 50,155.783 



1900 i 75, 568, 686 



Per cent of 
ifain in lo years. 



35.6 
21 .3 

32.4 

Gain in 20 vrs. 
5^-1 



Value of 
Orchard 
Products. 



$7,723,186 
19,991,885 
38, 000, 000^ 

50,876,154 
83,751,840 



Per cent of 
gain in lo years. 



1 59 . 
90.0 

33-9 
Gain in 20 vrs. 
64.6 ■ 



'Values of orchard products arc for the year preceding tlie census. 

"The vahie of orchard products was not siven for 1890. 

^" In 1870 the value of orcliard products returned was $47,335,189. The reduction 
of tliis amount by t'.ie then cxistin.o' preniium on goh! (j^-.'^i pi-'i' '^'cMit on the a\-erage 
for the twelve months of the census year. May 31. 1S69, to June r, 1870) wouhl 
yield about $38,000,000." Tenth Census, Statistics of Agriculture, page xxii. 



240 



-'^o 



Bur.LKTix 226. 



In' the consiiiiier iov ihe Iransportalion, coiiiiuissions aiul prolits in- 
crease tlie cost several times. A larL;'er proportion of the crop ma\ 
now he exported, hnt the threat chan,L;"e has l)een in the creation of 
a home demand for fresli frnit, snch as does not exist in any other 
conntrv. The great frnit market of the world is the American work- 
man, and his sta])le frnit is the api)le. 

The iJiai:;nifiidc of the apple crop. — Of the total nnml)er of orchard trees 
reported in 1900, 55 per cent were apple, and these prodnced 83 per 

Taiu.i-: 2. 

Rrlalivt- rank in fruil pnnlitclion of Ihc Icn Icmiin.i:. fniil-friKluciii,^ sUtlcs, from the 

eeiisiis iif axK). 



Orch\i;u Products. 



All Fruits. 



Total value. Percent. Rank. Total value. , Per cent. Rank. 



United States $83. 751,840 

California 14. 526, 786 

New York 10.542.272 

Pennsylvania 7,976.464 

(.^hio I 6. 141. 1 18 

Illinois ! 3,778,811 

Michigan 3. 675, 845 

Indiana 3. 166, 338 

Missouri 2. Q44. 175 

Virginia 2. (^(^2. 483 

New Jersey 2. 594. 981 



1 00.0 




$131,423,517 


1 00.0 




1 7 3 


1 


28.280. 104 


-I -5 


I 


12.0 


2 


15.844.346 


12. 1 


2 


Q-S 


,? 


g. 884. 809 


7-5 


,1 


7 ■ .1 


4 


8.901.220 


6.8 


4 


4-3 


S 


5,455.213 


4-1 


6 


4 4 


() 


5.859.362 


4-5 


5 


3.8 


/ 


4.630, 169 


.^5 


7 


,^5 


X 


4.309.813 


.^.^ 


8 


3 , 2 


9 


.V 515. 475 


-'•7 


10 


.V I 


10 


4. 082. 788 


3- 1 


9 



/.eattniii fruil e'lun I u\s in Xeie ]'oik. 



Okch.ard Pnoui cts. 

Per cent 
1,1 I of the 

■'' ^■•*'"^'- N. V. 

j crop. 



Niagara $1 . 078. 042 

Orleans 839, 71,2 

Monroe 768, 927 

Wayne 584, 254 

Ontario 497, 354 

Dutchess 3,77, 427 

Ulster ' 354- -62 

Westchester 306. 010 

Columbia ,?oo. 645 

Chautancina [ 296, 679 








0.2 


1 


8.0 


2 


7-.^ 


3 


5 • 5 


4 


4-7 


5 


.^6 


h 


34 


7 


2.9 


8 


2.9 


9 


2.8 


10 



.All F 


Rt'ITS. 

Per cent 










of the 






N. Y. 






crop. 




$1. 184.482 


7 -S 


J 


875.270 


5-5 


() 


9-'8.673 


5-9 


4 


903. 875 


5-7 


5 


730. 222 


4.6 


7 


429. 679 


■2-7 


in 


989, 024 


6.2 


3 


3-29.419 


2. 1 


15 


434. 660 


2.7 


9 


1 , 620, 923 


10.2 


I 



An xA.prLK Okciiakm Slk\kv oj- Wavnk County, \'i-:\v York. jc;! 



cent of the total number of bushels of fruit reported. The average 
production of apples is about two to three bushels per capita. 

Of the crop of 175,000,000 bushels in 1899, the States of New York, 
Pennsylvania and Ohio produced nearly 69,000,000 bushels, or over 
39 per cent of the total crop in the United States (see Table 3). New 
'Vork justly claims hrst place in the quantity and quality of her apple 
ci"op. Apples are grown in nearly all parts of the State, l)ut it is in 
the lake counties, Niagara, ( )rleans, Monroe and Wayne that the 
industry has been niost extensively developed. In 1900, fifteen states 
outside of New York had a greater number of apple-trees than the 
combined number in these four counties, l)ut onl\- nine of these states 
gave a larger crop in 1899. No other count}' in the United States pro- 
duced as many apples as any one of these. Only four counties : one 
in Illinois, one in .Missouri and two in Arkansas had as many irees as 
any one of these. 

Tlic production of evaporated apples. — Wayne county has come to 
market the great bulk of its ai)|)le cvop as evaporated a|)ples. The 
other counties sell nearly all their crop in barrels. According to the 
last census (see Table 4), Wayne county produces over two-thirds of 
the evaporated fruit in New York, and produces an amount exceeded 
b}- only three states. Two of th.ese, ( )regon and North Carolina, onl}' 
slighth' exceed Wavne county, 'iliis report includes all kinds of 
evaporated fruit. ( )f evaporated apples. AX'ayne county doubtless pro- 
duces more than anv State in the L^nion, except, of course. New York 
( see Table 41 ). 

Table t,. 
Number of af>p!c-trces and yield of apt^les, from the census of iSgo and of 1900. 



Censi.-s 01-^ lE 



No. bearing 
trees 1890. 



Bushels of 

apples for the 

year iS8q. 



United States .... 120, 152, 795 

New York 14.428,381 

Pennsj'lvania .... g. 097, 700 

Ohio 10,860, 613 



Virginia 

Illinois 

Michigan 

Indiana 

West Virginia. . 

Missouri 

Kentucky ...... 



4,253.364 
6,949.336 
8, 582. 386 
6,089, 106 
^,870,535 
8, 150,442 
5, 730, 144 



143, 105,689 
8.493,846 
7. 552, 710 

13, 789- -278 
8,391,425 
9, 600, 785 

1 3, 154, 626 
8. 784, 038 
4, 4,^9, 978 
8,698,170 

10,679,389 



Cens 



No. trees of 

bearing age 

1900. 



Bushels of 
apples for year 



301, 

IS, 
II, 

12, 

8, 

13, 

10, 

8, 

5, 
20, 



794, 
054 > 
774- 
9.^2, 
190. 
430. 
927. 
624. 
441, 
040, 

757, 



764 
832 
211 
625 
025 
006 
899 
593 
112 

399 
238 



175,397,626 

24, 111,257 

24,060,651 

20.617,480 

9,835.982 

9. 178,150 

8,931,569 

8, 620, 278 

7,495-743 
6, 496, 4.36 

6-053.717 



3 
4 

5 
6 

7 
8 

9 
10 



'■S^ 



BULLKTIX 226. 



Takle j — CoiichnhuL 
Lcadiuii Couittics in Nci^' York 



Monroe . . . 

Niagara 

Wayne 

Orleans 

Dutchess. . . . 
Westchester. 

Ontario 

Ulster 

Chautantiua . 
Cattaraugus . 
Erie 



CENirUS Ol- iS 



No. bearing 
trees 1890. 



75«, 7^9 
1,033,454 
659, 890 
591,767 
-'88. 762 

364. 33,3 
425. J36 

-'51-3^9 
460, 1 1 1 
366. 536 
730, 458 



Bushels of 

apples tor the 

year 1889. 



439, 682 

623. 204 

1.030. 381 

3-'i,7-'6 
194-916 
57«. 679 
591.073 
190,038 
175,704 
3-2, 999 
65,212 



I 
7 
13 
4 
3 

14 
15 
43 
37 



Census of i.,oo. 



No. trees ol' 
bearing age 



789, 409 
924. 086 
796,610 
629.401 
400.811 
3.^6, 135 
419-483 
.^47- 497 
449,317 
4.^4,319 
631,283 



Bushels of 
apples for year 



I -436, .59 1 
1,421,796 

1,393-585 

I, 39' -630 

990- 244 

979,411 

933, 764 
901, 162 

825,633 
718,201 
476,091 



9 
10 

15 



1 .\i;i.E 4. 
Pmiiids of dncd and ci'uporalrd {mil l^roduccd in iSij^j, from the census of igoo. 



Pounds of dried 
fruit. 



Li nited .States 144, S04. 638 

California ' 117. 935. 727 

New York 3,658,610 

Oregon | 2. 818, 200 

North Carolina 2, 744, 450 

Tennessee 2, 533, 810 



Per cent. Rank. 




Counties in Seie Yorlc. 



Per cent 
Pounds of dried : of the 
fruit. I N. y. 

iproduct. 



Wayne. 
Ontario 
Yates . . 
Monroe 
Orleans 



698, 350 


73.'i 


508, 300 


139 


105,820 


2.9 


87, 160 


-2-4 


9,500 


0.3 



Rank. 



3 

4 

10 



An Apple Orchard Sur\i:y or Wayne County, New York. 253 



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Ax Applk Orchard Sur\'i-:y of W'avxf. County, New ^'ork. 



Table 6. 
Exports of Atopics.''' 



1851 
1852 
i8S3 
1854 
1855 
1856 

1857 
1858 

1859 
i860 



Annual average 



1861 
1862 
1863 
[864 
1 86 s 
1866 
1867 
[868 
1869 
1870 



Fkesii. 



Barrels. 



Annual average. 



1871 
1872 
1873 
1874 

1875 
1876 
T877 
1878 
1879 
1880 



Annual axerage. 



888 



28, 842 
18,411 
45,075 
15,3^6 

33-959 
74. 287 
33- -201 
27,711 
32, 979 
78, 809 



112,523 
66, 767 
174,502 
183,969 
120.317 
51.612 

29- 577 
19.874 

t 
38.157 



49. 088 

36, 508 
241.663 

44, 928 
276, 209 

64. 472 
417,065 
101,617 
505. 018 
407.911 



Value. 



$71,367 
43.635 
107.283 
51.766 
107,643 
143.884 
135.280 

74. 363 

99, 803 

206,055 



38,860 I $104. 108 



^269, 363 
238, 923 
364.628 
487, 140 

481,3.^4 

246. 118 

142.023 

94. 748 

t 

2^0, 013 



88.589 ! $283,810 



$136,693 
198. 948 
819.664 
204,312 
722. 247 
221.764 
986. 112 
386, 261 
980. 455 

I. 190, 560 



214.448 $584,702 



I. 117. 065 
176,704 
313,921 

105. 400 
668. 867 

744, 539 
591,868 

489, 570 



$2,301,334 
539- 543 
I. 085. 230 
422. 447 
1,572. 126 
1,810.606 
I. S82.872 
1.378,801 



Ave'ge 
price. 



47 



Dried. 



Value. 



68 



2.841.532 
892, 075 
551,350 
510.750 

775- 700 
t 
836, no 



$246,051 
105.548 
55. 265 
79, 922 
121. 910 
f 
79- ?>^7 



Average 
price. 



20 I I . 067, 920 



•t2 


78 


5 


45 


3 


39 


4 
2 


55 
61 


3 
3 


44 
36 
80 


I 


94 


2 


92 



P-7^ 



52. 06 
3 05 
3 46 
4.01 
2.35 
2.43 
2.. 34 
2.82 



I. 150. 122 
2. 644. 592 
4.483.186 
4.234.736 
4.053,696 
713.840 
14.318.052 
4. 188,173 
7.379.836 
3. 158.367 



$114,681 



4, 632, 460 



$79. 026 
190. 560 
2-2. 028 
294. 893 
326. 193 

67.915 
920. 292 
260. 085 
296. 794 
192,069 



22.623,652 
2,893,270 

10. 187,957 
5. 558. 746 

18,416,573 

10,473, 183 
8. 1,30,396 

11,803, 161 



,247,891 
228, 945 
786. 800 

.^94- 350 
, 062, 859 
548. 434 
4 1 3. ,363 
812,682 



$0,087 
.118 
. 100 
.156 

■157 
t 
.095 



$0. 107 



$0 . 069 

.072 

.061 
.070 

.080 
095 

.064 

.062 

.040 
.061 



$289,986 ' $0,063 



$0,055 
.079 
.077 
.071 
.058 
.052 
.051 
.069 



*Bulletin 64, and circular 16. Divi.'^ion of Foreign Markcb 
of Agriculture. 
t Record not kept. 



L'. S. Department 



256 



Bv 



X 22(X 



Tablk 6 — Coitcliidcd. 



1889 

1890 

Annual average 

1891 

189-' 

189.^ 

1894 

1895 . . ; 

1896 

1897 

1898 

1899 

1 900 

Annual rucratje 

1901 

1902 

1903 

(904 



Kresi 



Barrels. 



942. 406 

45.^ 506 



560. 385 



135-207 
938. 743 

408. OT 4 

78. 580 

818.711 

360. 00 J 

.503-981 

60 T. 390 

vSb, 222 
526, 636 



575- 549 

883.673 

459- 719 

1.656, I -'9 

_'.0l8, 2b2 



Value. 



$2, 249, 375 
I. -'31. 436 



$1,397,377 



$476,897 
2. 407. 956 
1.097,967 

242,617 
1,954,318 

930, 289 

-'.371-143 
1,684.717 
1,210.459 
I , 444. 655 



Avf'pl Pounds. 
price. 



$2.39 ' -32,102,579 



;.72 



$2.49 



$3-53 
2.57 
2.69 
3 09 

-'•.39 

2.58 
1.58 
2.78 
3 -18 
2.74 



20,861,462 



13,305.098 



Value. 



$1,201,070 
1 , 038, 682 



^773^ S08 



6,973. 

26, 042, 
7. 966, 
2, 846, 
7.085. 

26,691, 

30, 775. 

31.031. 

19.305. 

34. 964. 



168 
065 
819 

645 
946 

963 
401 
254 
739 
010 



$1,382,102 $2.40 19.368,301 $1,088,104 



$409, 605 

. 288. 102 

482, 085 

168,054 

461,214 

. 340. 507 

.340.159 

. 897, 725 

. 245. 733 

,247,851 



Average 
price. 



$0 . 054 

.050 
$0,058 



$2,058,964 
1.628.886 
4, 381,801 
5,446,473 



U.33 
3-54 
2.65 
2.70 



28. 309. 023 
15,664,-468 
39. 646, 297 
48, 301,665 



$1,510,581 
I. 190.593 
2. 378, 635 
2.791,421 



■059 
.049 
.061 

■ 059 
.065 
.050 
.044 
.061 
.065 
.064 



$0,056 



$0,053 
.076 
. 060 
.058 



Areas- — There are in Walworth lu\vnslii[) i,773,'4 acres of orchard 
made up of areas as larg-e or larger than one acre. This township con- 
tains ab(->ut 34' J square miles. There are. therefore, 51 acres of apples 
[)er square mile; or a little over 8 per cent of the land is devoted to 
orchards, in < )ntario townshiji there are about 40 acres per square mile, 
in Macedon a1)ont iij acres. With the exception of Walworth and prob- 
ably .Marion townshi])s. it mav be said that the area devoted to orchards 
increases as we approach the lake. 

The total area dex'oted to a])i)les in the countv is al)ont 21.000 acres. 

riie area of the count\' is ()2i S(|iiare miles. I his g'ivcs 33.8 acres of 

apples per square mile, or 5.3 ])er cent. The census shows that there are 

305.200 acres of improved lan<l in farms. The apple orchards equal 6.9 

per cent of this area. 

According- to the census rej^ort for 1891), there were 796,610 " trees 
of bearings age " in the countw This sur\e}- shows the average num- 
ber per acre to be 41.8. This number of trees would therefore repre- 
sent an area of al)out lo.ooo acres. Probabl\- 2,000 acres were not of 
bearing age, or have been set since 1899. This would seem to su])port 



An Apple Orciiakp Survey of Wayne County, New York. 257 

the above estimate, or perhaps the estimate substantiates the census 
returns, for this work should be much more accurate than the census. 

The average area for each proprietor in Walworth is 5.4 acres. This 
includes all orchards as large as one acre. In the remainder of the 
county such small orchards were not recorded, so that the average 
does not give an accurate idea of the average size. The average of 
those examined was 17.2 acres. 

TJic dcz'clopmcnt of the coiniiicrcial orch.ard. — Half a century ago the 
agriculture of Western New York was grain raising and general farm- 




FiG. 40. — Many of the pithlic roads arc lined i^'illi afj^lc-lrcL-s. 



ing. The orchards were '" kitchen orchards." The}' were planted 
around the house or in some corner that could not be used for the 
regular crops. The busy farmer ])aid little attention to the trees. He 
merely gathered the apples, and gave about the same attention to the 
orchard that the boys gave to the chestnut tree. The ap]:)les were a clean 
gift. If there were enough for the kitchen and the cider barrel the farmer 
was satisfiedv He had no quarrel with the worms or the scab fungus. 
The more worms the more cider ap]iles. and since the farmer sometimes 
appreciated the cider barrel fully as much as he did the apple barrel, he 
was willing to share the crop with the insects. 



238 Bulletin 226. 

About 18O0 men began lo plant real commercial orchards. ]'"or the 
first time in the history of the new world, large commercial apple orchards 
were planted with a \ie\v to selling the fruit. It is no wonder that 
sonic mistakes were made. The old ideas gained from the kitchen 
orchard and cider manufacture were naturally carried over into the new 
industry. Little was really known about the a])ple-tree. Xo one knew 
much about insects and fungi, (ir how to treat ihem. .\'or did the\- know 
how to market fruit. d^-ans])ortation and markets had to be developed. 
I he ])oor fruit and low prices discouraged many men. A few even cut 
down their orchards. 

Hut these years accomj)lished nuicli. dhe cheap apjdes educated 
the taste of the ])ublic and created a demand for more apples. Together, 
the farmer and Mxperiment Station man have worked out methods of 
culture, and ]ia\'e learned how to control the enemies of the apple. 

r>ul it takt's time for ik-\\ ideas to become established, ddie farmer 
is conservative. It is well that he is so. Heeause he moves slowly, he 
moves siH'el)-. lie ne\er needs lo retrace his steps. We cannot e.x- 
])ect e\ery one t(.) acct'])t all the new ideas in orchar<l treatment as 
soon as the_\- are advanced. It has always requirt'd a generatic:)n of 
men to estaldish any new agricultural svstem. Changes must largely 
come through the new generation. Some mature men can readily 
adapt ihemselxes to new C(.)nditions, but it is usualK" tlie voung man, 
b()rn under these conditions, who reall\- accepts them. 

The many neglected orchards are records of the agriculture of the 
past, the growing number that are well cared for are the forerunners 
of the new. ' In the ne.xt hft\- \ears the lake counties of western New 
Tork seem destined to become ime continiK^us truit larm of apples, 
pears, peaches, cherries, plums and small fruits. 1 

dhe change from genei'al farming to truit farming has been ver}' 
gradual, ddie decrease in the fertilitx' of the s(")il and western compe- 
tition ha\-e I'orced men wdio wert' trained in grain farming and who 
]!referre(l that work to become fruit growers, ddie grain crops have 
generalh' ceased to be i)rohtal)le when grown for market. Ibis has 
directed attention to the small a])])le orchard which has so fre(|uently 
supported a famil\ when the remainder of the farm ga\-e no ])rofit, or 
an actual loss. I here are mau\- men who still neglect the orchard 
to care for tlu' held crojjs when there is not time to take good care of 
both, l)ut others take the businesslike view and tend to the most profit- 
able crop first. 



An xA.prLp: Orchard Survey of Wayne County. New York. 259 

All through this report the fewer orchards, poorer care, and less 
yields in the south part of the county are apparent. This difference may 
be due partly to the more favorable climate near the lake, but this factor 
is a minor one. The south part of the county has, in general, soils that 
retain their fertility longer than those in the north part. The grain crops 
consequently continued profitable for a longer time. The orchards are 
less profitable because less care is given to them. When equall\- well 
cared for they have given as good crops as have those in the north part 
of the county. 

The last few years have seen a rapid improvement in orchard 
management. d\Mi }cars ago there were few cultivated orchards ex- 
cept those in which crops were grown. Orchards were quite commonly 
considered to l)e an unprofitable inxestment. How could they be 
profitable when not tilled, ])runed. fertilized or sprayed? But a 
gradual improvement has been taking place and has been reflected in 
the increased profits, until apples are now looked upon as the money- 
producing crop of the county. Nearly all orchards have received im- 
proved care in some respect. It may have been nothing more than a 
spraying or jM-uning. or an application of manure when all of these were 
needed, but the trees have almost invariably responded to any kind of 
improved care, h^ourteen per cent have been distinctl\ renovated during 
the past ten years. These have been fairly well cared for in every way. 

The canker worm formerly devastated large numbers of orchards 
year after year. Spraying came into popularity in combatinig this pest. 
The canker worm is now almost exterminated. l)ut the many other good 
effects of spraying have firmly established this practice. Even those 
orchards which are not sprayed must be greatly benefited, because the 
men who do spray help to keep the insect enemies of the entire neighbor- 
hood in check. 

But what has been done in the past ten years in renovating orchards 
is small in comparison with what remains to be done. The apple- 
consuming public is constantl}' demanding a better product. This means 
that the fruit-grower who can not or will not pmduce good apples must 
fall out of the race. Each year a large number of such men is giving 
place to energetic men who are not satisfied to grow anything but the 
best. It is these good fruit-growers that will insure the continued 
supremacy of New York apples. 



26o 



Bulletin 226. 




Ficking Ihc crop. The aislomary method. 



CHAPTER II. 

TlLLACK. 

Acreage of filled and itntilled orchards- — About 30 per cent of the 
orchards that were set before 1880 were tilled in 1903. This percent- 
age is slightly below what it would have been in a favorable season. 
The verv dry weather in the earl}- spring prevented many from 
plowing. 

About half of the orchards of the count}- have been in sod five to ten 
years or more. The other half are tilled more or less. In the south 
part verv few old orchards are tilled. — only 12 per cent in i<)03. In 
the north part tillage is much more common. It is practiced more in 
Walworth township than in an}- i^ther part of the count}'. Here less 
than one-third of the orchards are in sod permanently ( see Table 7 and 8). 

'1"ai!I.e 7. 
Trcutiiicnl prior to kjoj. Trees sc! before nSSo. 



TREATMENT. 


Walworth. 


Remainder of the 

County. 


Entire Coi'ni v. 


No. or- 
chards. 


Acres, 


Per No.or- 

centJ chards. 


Acrci 1 P^"" 1 N"-"""- Acres P^"" 
^'^^^^- cerit.l chards. Acres. ^^^^ 


Tilled 5 years or more.. 

Tilled most years 

Sod most years, tilled 

occasionally 

Sod 5 years, or more. . . 


44 
64 

73 
87 


307 -'4 
242 

323 

,535 


25 
20 

27 
28 


12 

8 

18 

58 


2ig'A 

208 

195'-' 
852/2 


15 
14 

13 
58 


56 527 '4 20 
/-' 450 1 7 

91 5 18 '2 19 
145 118712 , 44 



Table 8. 
Treatnieiil in 1903 of oreliards set before iSHo. 





w 


AI.WOHTH 




South PaktCol'ktn. 


Ndr'h PartCountv. 


Entire County. 


TREATMENT. 


o-H 

6 jS 


Acres. 


0-S 




Acres. 






Acres. 




u 

6 2 


Acres. 




Sod (not pastured) 
Sod (cattle pas- 
ture) . . . . 


132 

71 

8 
44 


460 

342 

47 
151 


30 
22 

3 
10 


9 

18 

5 

6 


95 

i73}< 

46 


23 
43 

II 
II 


17 
14 

II 
3 


218K 

333 

239 
27 


19 
29 

21 


158 
103 

24 

53 


773! 2 

848-2 

330 
224 


25 

•77 


Sod (sheep pas- 
ture) . . . 


M 


Sod (hog pasture) 


7 


Total sod 

Tilled 


255 
124 


1000 

538''2 


65 
35 


38 
6 


358 ■-' 
49 


88 

12 


45 


817 ■< 
343 


71 
30 


338 

147 


2176 

930 "2 


70 
30 







20 1 



262 



BL'i.Li:riN 226. 



Crops were grown in 1903 in about one-third of the tilled orchards. 
Al)out 8 per cent (if the entire area, or Jj per cent uf the tilled area, was 
sown to cover-crops, to be plowed under. The remainder were tilled 
without any crop, but a cover-crop of weeds was cpiite common. 

Three-fourths c^f tlu' orchards set since iSjt; were tilled in i<)03. 
Crops were grown in all but 7 ]K^r cent of those that were tilled. The 
young orchard generally takes its ]-)lace as one field in the crop rota- 
ti()n. This keeps it in sod alxnit one-fourth of the time, in small grain 
one-fourth of the time, and in tilled crops half the _\ears (Table 9), 



I AI'.l.F. Q. 

TrcatinciU in I'los of orchards srl since rS/Q. 



TREATMENT. 



Sod (not pastured) 
Sod (pastured) . . . 

Total sod 

Tilled 



WalwiiRTh. 



No. or- 
chards. 



16 

48 



Rf.maimjeh of the 

Coi NT\ . 



Entire Cointv. 



Per 



41 19 

II 'A I 5 



-24 



No. or- 
chards. 



Acres. 



16' 
82 



Per 
cent. 


No. or- 
chards. 


Acres. 


Per 
cent. 


4 
20 


17 
7 


57 '2 
93 'i 


9 
15 



s : 98 'i 



163 '< I 76 I i() ! 31. 



24 ! 24 151 I 24 

76 I 64 475 ''2 I 76 



)'/V/(/.v of filled ami iiiiilllcd orchards. — Table TO gives the yields for 
four _\ears of orchards that have l)een tilled every year for at least five 
_\ears ])re\ious to the crop reported, those that were tilled o\er half 
the years, t'lose that were tilled occasionally but not half the time, and 
for those that ha\e been in sod ever\' year for at least hve vears. 

It will be seen that the tilled orchards ha\e gi\t'n a uniformlv larger 
\ ield than those in sod, the four-year a\'erage of the tilled ones being 
80 i)er cent abo\e that of the tmtilled. Perhai)s the most striking pwint 
in the tables is the tmiform agreement of the averages for each of 
the three ])arts of the county and for each of the fotir \-ears. It should 
be remembered th.at these tab]e> inchide ever\ orchard set liefore 1880, 
tor which reports of \ields could be obtained, and that ever\- orchard in 
\\'alworth was examined. There can be no further rpiestion as to whether 
the average sod (^r the average tilled orchard in \\'a\ne cotintx' gives the 
larger \ield. 



An Apple Okciiakd Surney of Wayne County, Xew York. 263 




'^< o -f 

r, ^1 ri -. 






Ph 



264 



Bulletin 226. 



A pari of this very great (lilTerence is doubtless due to other factors. 
The man who regularly tills his t)rcluird is more likely to fertilize, 
prune and spray well. 'L"o see how much of this dilTerence is due to 
tillage and how much is due to other factors another classification was 
made. 

Tal)le I I shows the average yields of those orchards that have been 
lairly well cared for. ddie\- differ onl\ in the factor of tillage. All 
lia\'e received some fertilization, hax'e been fairly \vell jjruned, are 
not diseased or in bad condition from anv cause. < )f these well cared 
for orchards the tilled ones gave an average of 33 ]ier cent above the 
untilled. ddiis tabulation doubtless c"ives too hieh a \ield for the 



T \ 1; I . E IT. 

]'u'!il III buslicls of tilled and sud .n-iluii-ds. ./rrri/.t^r fur tlic entire emtiily of trees 
set before iSSo. Orehards all leell eared for. 



rREATMKXT. 



Tilleil 5 ycar.s or more 
Filled most years. . . . 

Sod most years 

Sod 5 years or more. . 





1900. 




IQOI. 


No. 


Acres. 

'75 -'4 


Average 
yield. 

.^8 


Xo. 


Acres. 


.\verage 

yield. 


22 


1 77. "4 


99 


22 


181 


.^53 


21 


188 


38 


-M 


209 


260 


-5 


-'44 '< 


7-' 


.25 


206 


..4 


31 


249 


45 



TREATMKXT. 



TAP.i.b: I I — Coneluded. 



Tilled 5 years or mi>re 

Tilled most years 

.Sod most years 

Sod 5 years or more. . 



No. i Acres. I Average ^ 
I Yield. 



^S I 40 1-'., 

^"^ I 261 '; 

4''J ! .^65 >: 

47 i 356'; 



Acres. 



311 I 23 I 345 

3,^9 j 16 99'-' 

-'35 15 '' 1-2-^ 

269 ! 22 iS7h 



Four- 
ve.ir 



Average i average, 
yield. 



3-26 271 

-M9 -M5 

257 20(1 

263 200 



orchards in sotl, for in making it all tliscased ones were thrown out. 
In many cases these should ha\e been included, for the disease fre- 
i|uently gets a foothold becau^e the sod has lowered the vitality of the 
trees. The real difference due to sod will therefore lie between the 
80 per cent shown b\- Table 10 and the 35 per cent shown b)- Table 11. 

Docs tiUai::^c pay' — These tables do not show that e\-er_\- sod orchard 
should be tilled. Init they do show that it would pay to till the average 



Ax Applk (_)r(ii \ri) Sl'R\■l■.^• di' Wannic C'oi'Xin'. Xi'.w \'()rk. 2f)C^ 

one. If a sod orchard is g'i\ing good yields, and if the trees are mak- 
ing sufficient growth to keej) up their vitality, it may be desirable to 
keep it in sod. I'>_y the liberal use of barnyard manure or straw mulch, 
an orchard may be kept in good C(:)nditi()n without tillage. The trouble 
is that so manv do not receive enough of either. The s;une results may 
be accom])lished with uuich less manure if the orchard is tilled. If the 
(jrchard is in sod and is not xielding well, or if the trees are losing their 
vitalitv, even if the vield is still good, it will probably i)a\' to till. 




Fic. _!T. — One year's firozetli in a eornfield. A five-aere orchard f>lanted by Jay E. 
.nil's, i'lunpare :eilli /";>. ./-'. 



\\'hate\'er the best treatment of a thrifty orchard may be, there is 
no (juestion aljout the ach'isability of tilling one that needs renovating 
or of tilling young trees (see page 309. and Figs. 41, 42, 43). 

There are some marked ad\antages of sod. It re(|uires less work 
to leave the trees in sod. If the land is very ston\', the tillage brings 
the stones to the surface and makes a bad place for the apples to fall. 
Sod is also better to haul spray rigs over. Perhaps the greatest 
a(h'antage is in having a S(^d for the apples to fall on. This is par- 
ticularly desirable when the entire crop is to be shaken off for evapo- 



266 



BlTLLETIN 226. 



ratint;'. C nNXT-crdps will, U> sonn' rxle'iil, lak(.' llir place of sod, l)iU it is 
clifficnll to j^i'l a s^'ood cover-crop luidcr lar^c trees. Apples usually color 
better 011 sod and are said to kuep better, hut are not so large. Soiue 
e.\])erinients are now heini^' cmulucted on these points. 




Imc. 42.— Our year's i:ro:etli i^'hcn set in liiiiolhy sod. .1 !S-ori-c orchard in Orleans 
e'-nnly. ( C'i'H//^<;/r leil.'i /•'/-. //.) Here llie Irees are ,>[ seeoiidary iniher/anee. 

ddllagt', fertilization, prnidng- and si)raying are the chief factors that 
niter into good cai'e ol an (irchard. ( )ne or more of these ma\- some- 
times be omitteil without seriously ali'ecting the trees. Tillage ma\- 

lessen the need for 
lertilization. Fertili- 
zation ma\" hel]) to 
make up for lack of 
tillage. Some years 
few insects or fungi 
attack' the trees, so 
that spi"a\ ing is not 
much neeck'd. \ erv 
ire(|uently a grower 
brcomes impressed 
with the importance 
ot one of these fac- 
tors and makes a 
hobby of it to the ex- 
clusion of all the others: but the most successful man is the one who 
keeps a proper balance l)etween all foiu", and who does not expect spra\'ing; 
to replace manure, tillage or jiruning. or vice versa. 




k;. -I.v — . / I'ere tiii'i'-'''^'s A/i':e('(/ fl/(*»,c eaeli ti-ee re-.e 
lessen the eril ,'l'feels ,•( so,!. ]]',nihl il nol /\iy heller 
hi raise oiilv I'Ued ero/r-:.' 



An Apple Okciiakd Suk\i-:v of Wayne County, New York. 267 

Where does your orchard come, in the table on page 350? Is it where 
you want it to be? If so, continue your present methods; if not, then 
try to find out where the trouble is. 

The results of good and bad trcatinoit arc not ahvays apparent the first 
year. — The great ditftculty in determining what kind of treatment pays 
best in an}' i)articular orchard is the fact that it may be several years 
before the results are apparent in the difference in crops. If this fact 
were kept in mind by the orchardists. a very large part of the differ- 




Fir,. 44. — Tillage r. neglect. The )-oics on the right reere left in sixt. those on the lefl 
-i^'crc tillod. The trees zeere other:^'ise similarly treatrd. and arc of the same age. 



enee of opinion as to the best methcjd of caring for an orchard would 
disappear. V^ery fre([uently a grower has followed a few years of 
good care b\' a period of neglect and has received an increased yield 
as a result. The trees ma}' be making almost no new wood, and ma}' 
be so lowered in vitality as to be easy victims of canker and other 
diseases. Yet the increased crop may have persuaded the grower that 
this is the ideal treatment. Xo care can be good if it docs not look 
out for the future of the orchard. Alan}' orchards need treatment that 
will actually decrease the vield for several vears, while care that will 



268 



IjULLiniX 22(). 



i;rt'ally increase the yield may he (leslroxini;- the trees or shtjrtenini;- 
their period of hfe. The most [profitable croj^ that could be ,i^;'Oce;/ in 
iiiaiix oreliards is ne-:e -'c^'ood. and eoiiseiiuenl jte:^' I'r^or in the frees. The 
returns may l)e more a])i)arent in fi\e or ten yt'ars tlian in the first 
\ ear or two. ( jccasionalh" lliere is an orchard that is ^rowins^' too 

















i ; 



Fu;. 45. — ();((■ Iciiul of " cullurc." 'bin's t\'rl:'e-acrc orcliaid could be reiioenlcil 
(iiu! iiiaib- a ''ikhI orcluird. 



fast and tliat would he henelited 1)\ so(l, hut they are not common. 
A much hirj^cr nnmher are dyiui; hack laster than new wood is l)eing' 
formed. 

In Iml;-. 44 is shown an experiment in orchard mana.Q'ement that was 
carritMl on h\ T. * 1. ^';•olnans \- .^'.mis for n)an\' _\ears. Idle trees on the 
left were tilled and fertilized. Those on the riijiit were fertilized the same 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayni;; County, New York. 269 

but were left in timothy sod. The trees in sod are so badly weakened that 
the land has been plowed and a start made toward renovating them. 

Methods of tillage. — Orchards are commonly plowed in the fall. 
This is frequently done so as to have less spring work. Early spring 
plowing would seem to be much more desirable for an orchard. The 
grass or weeds will hold the snow and leaves. 

In a few orchards the roots are so near the surface as to prevent 
plowing. Such an orchard may be tilled with a spading harrow, disk or, 
on sandy soils, with a spring-tooth harrow. 

The ideal system of tillage for most orchards is early plowing or 
disking, followed by clean tillage until about July ist. Some kind of 
a cover-crop is then sown. This cover-crop will produce humus to 1)e 
]:)lowed under; it furnishes a partial substitute for sod for the apples 
to fall on; it will help to remove surplus water during fhe latter part 
of the season and thus cause the fruit to color better. Fig. 61 and the 
frontispiece show orchards that are receiving this kind of treatment. 

Methods of sod trcatiiiciit. — Man_\- of the orchards that are in sod are 
pastured by cattle, hogs, sheep and horses. From some hay is cut ; 
from others the grass is not removed, — usually because there is not 
enough to pay for cutting. A ver\- few farmers are trying the so-called 
mulch method of cutting the grass that grows in the orchard and 
leaving it wdiere it falls or throwing it under the trees. There were 
not enough of them, nor had the work been continued long enough 
so that a statistical report could be made. 

Table 12 shows the vields for 1902. with the different methods of sofl 
treatment. The number of orchards is not sufficient to give con- 
clusive results. Tt would a])pear that pasturing with cattle is the 
worst possible treatment for an orchard, a conclusion that is in 

T.\K(.t: 12. 

Yields in hiishrls for 190J. -n'l'tli van'ous iiidliods af sud treatment. Tree; set before 

18S0. 



TREATMENT. 



PasUired with hogs 
Pastured with sheep 
Pastured with cattle 
Sod, not pastured . . 



No. 
orchards. 



15 
54 

47 



256/2 



Average 

yield. 



271 
216 
159 
185 



270 



Bulletin 226. 







An Apple Orchard Si'r\i-:v of Wayne CouNT^■, Xicw York. 



27T 



accord with the appearance of the orchards thus pastured. Cattle rub 
on the trees, break the branches and browse the Hnibs as high as they 
can reach. The few doUars that it would cost to procure a regular 
pasture for them is lost many times over l)y the damage to the trees. 
Horses are not so fre((uently pastured in the orchards, Init are 
equally injurious. In one case a good young orchard had nearly every 
tree stripped of its bark by a span of horses. The orchard was worth 
about five times as much as the horses. 

Next in the scale of injuriousness to pasturing cattle in an orchard 
is the raising of hay in it. The hay crop grows in the spring at the 
time when the apple-trees make their growth. It therefore uses the 
l)lant-food and water at the time when the trees need it most. If the' 
grass is left on the grountl the 
mulch helps to preserve the 
moisture, and leaves the 
plant-food so that the damage 
is not so great. 

Sheep crop the grass close 
to the groimd, and so to some 
extent prevent the large evap- 
oration that occurs in a hay 
field. The manure dropped 
])}• them is also of consider- 
able value. Fig. 46 shows an 
orchard that is pastured b}- sheep earl\ in the season. This is one of the 
best sod orchards. Large a])plications of barnyard mainire are used. 
Several of the limbs that show a lack of foliage are infected b\- canker. 
If sheep are allowed to run in the orchard during the latter ]xvrt of the 
season, they frequently pick man\- apples. If prices are good, the apples 
eaten may be of more value than the sheep (see Fig. 47). 

Pasturing with hogs seems to give better yields than any other 
method of sod treatment. The hogs usually do considerable rooting, 
and so prevent the formation of a tough sod. In some cases the 
orchard that has hogs in it might almost be classed as a tilled orchard. 
The difference is also largely due to the manure. The hogs receive most 
of their food from outside the orchard, so that there is a constant addi- 
tion to the plant-food in the soil. Cattle and sheep are usually fed 
much less. 




Fig. 47. — Slirrf !!07'r removed about a barrel 
of affix's from eaeh free in tin's oreho.rd. 



272 



Bulletin" 226. 



Hogs frc(|nenlly do considerable damage to the trees, particular!) if the 
feed-xard is in the orchard. Around the jjlace where the\ are ted they 
rub the trunks and roots, pack the soil so as to make it imper\'ious to 
air, and sometimes hark the lree>. it is well to remember that one good 
apple-tree is worth more than a hog, and that a small strip of bark 
removed will usualh' result in a decaxed tree. There should always be 
a feed-yard outside the orchard. 

Hogs or shec]) do coiLsiderable good b\' eating the apples that fall 
early, and so disposing of many worms. 

X(^ne of tlu' methods of sod treatment ecpial tillage in average yields. 
A comparison of Table 12 with Table 10 .shows the force of this statement. 



CHAPTER III. 
Fertilization. 

Fertilisers used. — Tlie majority of orchards receive no commercial 
fertilizer or green manure, but are given a limited amount of barn- 
yard manure — usually much too limited. One-third receive no fer- 
tilizing of any kind. Sixty per cent receive barnyard manure, either 
alone ov in C()ml)ination with commercial fertilizer, green manure, etc.; 
green manure is used alone or in combination in u per cent; commercial 
fertilizer is used alone or with other manures in 13 per cent (see 
Table 13). 

These figures show too high a percentage receiving some kind of 
fertilizer. In man}- cases only a little manure was ai)plied. l)ut tlie 
orchard was included with those receiving manures. In others tlie 
fertilization was given so long ago as to be of no consec|uence at 
present. Probably less than half the orchards receive enough to 
entitle them to be pro]ierly included with those receiving fertilization. 

Table 13. 
Suiiiiiiary of fcriiliccrs used. All ages of orchards included. 



FERTILIZER. 


U 


SKJ) Al.O.N'E 


Used with 
Other Fertilizers. 


^.r/s: No. acres. 


Per ! No. or- «t„ .,„,^ 
cent. Ichards. >Io- acres. 


Per 

cent. 


None 










Barnyard manure 
Commercial fer- 
tilizer 


214 

10 
14 


145.3^4' 
103 

ii7;< 


44 . 3 38 50q 

,M 40 : ^\^ 

3.5 17 1 291,'/.^ 


15-5 

0-5 
8.8 


Green manure. . . 



Total. 



Xo. or- 
chards. 



No. acres. 



154 IIOI>^ 
2J2 I962-?4 



50 
31 



416 
409 



Per 

cent. 

33-5 
59 7 

12.6 

I-2-3 



Orchards receiving no fertilization of any kind. 



Walworth 

South part of county. 
North part of county 



No. orchards. 



Per cent. 



117 
21 
16 



453 
241 

407' 



31-4 
62.2 
28.1 



In many of the fertilized orchards the manure was used with a view 
to helping some crop ])lanted in the orchard. Of course if it is applied, 
the apple-trees will make use of a part of it. 



2/4 



'ULI.ETIX 226. 



Fcrtilicafioii and yield. — I'hc records of the use of barnyard manure 
and fertilizers do not cover a long- enough period to be used in com- 
])aring crops before n;o2. Idie average yields of fertilized orchards 
for the years 1902 and 1903 were 55 bushels above that of those that 
were unfertilized (see Table 14). , 



I .\^,^.K 14. 

)'icld in bushels fur JOOJ and iQOJ! fur fertilized and iiiifcrtiliccd orchards. Trees 

set before rSHo. 







1902. 


Averasjc 
yield': 




1903. 




Two-year 
average. 




No 
orcliards. 

292 
III 


Acres. 


orchards. 


Acres. 


Average 
yield. 


Fertilized 

Unfertilized 


2. 1 16 '4 
692 


^33 

173 


147 

44 


I.2I0;i 
343 }< 


281 
231 


257 
202 



X'cccssify for fcrfiIi:atioii. — The cultivated orchards demand much 
less fertilization than ihr untilled ones, for the tillage makes food that 
is in the soil a\ailal>le. Ilu're are, ho\ve\'er, \erv few soils that do not 
need some material added at l^T-ast in the form of green mamu'C. 

Many of the less progressix'e growers fail to recognize the orchard 
as a cro]) thai r((|uirc's food a-^ do other cro])S. A coiumon rei)ly to the 
([uestion of llu' kind ()i manure used was, " We don't raise anything 
in the orchard so we do not use an\ manure e)r fertilizer,"" the growth 
of wood, leaves, and a])])les not being recognized as a drain on the plant- 
food in the soil. lUit the numl)er of those who recognize the orchard as 
a cro]) re(|uiring food and care is r;i])idl\' increasing. The small, light- 
colored lea\es, tin- \ ery little growth, the small ap])les, are re([uests 
for food. The owner should answer the demand with manure or tillage, 
usuall_\' with both. 

Tlir aniDiiiit of f'laiif-food rriiiorcd by flic affic cvof^ compared loith 
that rcniorcd by the ivlicat crof'. — The following tables, based on lUilletin 
No. 103 of this Station, show something of the demands made bv the 
i\])\)\q orchard. All the leaves were gathered from a meditun-sized, 
mature apple-tree and were analyzed. The trimk, liranches and the roots 
were also analvzed.* 



■'Cornell P.ulletin T03. Octnljcr, iSo.^ Thi'^ Inilletin is n 



nil (if print. 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County,' New York. 275 

Table 15. 
Plant-food in apple leaves. 



Total weight 

Total weight water 

Total weight dry matter 

Total weight nitrogen 

Total weight phosphoric acid 
Total weight potash 



Leaves of one 
tree analyzed. 



Estimated for one 
acre of 35 trees. 




T\m-F. r6. 
I'laiit-fiind in wood and roots. 





Wood and roots 
of one tree 
analyzed. 


Estimated for one 
acre of js trees. 


Estimated amount 

removed per 

year.* 


Total weight 


5,251.4 lbs. 

2,300.18 " 

2.951.22 " 

8.09 " 

3.07 " 

7-55 " 






Total weight water 






Total weight dry matter 






Total weight nitrogen 


283.15 lbs. 

107.45 " 
264.25 " 


6.29 lbs. 
2.39 " 
5-87 " 


Total weight phosphoric acid... . 
Total weight potash 





*To get the estimate of the amount required for wood and roots each year, it was 
assumed that *'-■ of the mature tree was grown each year. Trees 45 years old are 
usually larger than the tree analyzed. 



Grain 

Straw 



T.vBi.F. 17. 

Composition of i^'hrat. 

Water. Nitrogen. 

14-75% 2.36% 



12.56 



.56 



Phosphoric 
acid. 

0.89% 
. 12 



Potash. 

0.61% 

• 51 



Water. 

85 -Sf^ 



Composition of apples. 



Nitrogen. 
0.13;; 



Phosphoric 
acid. 

o.oW 



Potash. 
O. l()'/ 



276 



BuLLi-yrix 226. 



■|\\i:i.K 18. 
Total plant-food rcnioi'cd in one year hy i^'liraf and by apples. 





Nitrogen. 


Phosphoric acid. 


Potash. 


^00 bushels of apples 


19.50 lbs. 

.^3 60 • • 

6,29 " 


1.50 lbs. 

12.95 " 
2.39 " 


28.50 

46.20 

5.87 


Leaves 

Wood 




Total 


59.39 lbs. 


16.84 lbs. 


80.57 


20 bushels of wheat 

2, =500 pounds wheat straw 


28.32 lbs. 
14.00 '■ 


10.68 lbs. 
300 " 


7-32 
12.75 




Total 


42.32 lbs. 


13.68 lbs. 


20.07 





According to these estimates it requires, for crops of tlie size indicated, 
about four times as miiclT pijtasli, and more nitrogen and phosphoric acid, 
to grow tilt- ap])k's than is re(|uired to grow tlic wheat, in considering 
these tables there are several points to kee]) in minth ddie apple roots 
go deeiKT into the ground and so have more soil from wliich to draw 
their food su|;)pl\-. If the grotmd has some kind of a crop growing on 
it, the leax't'S may he largely retained in tlu' orchard. Tlie amount of 
plant-lood used b\ the wood is ncjt very wfll known, as it is difficult to 
determine what an a\erage growth is. Ihit e\'en the 300 bushels of ap|)les, 
without any leaves or wood growth, recjiiire more ])otash and nearlv half 
as much nitrogen as is ri'tphred to produce the wheat and straw. 

Manure may he shipped in jroiii llic cities. — .\ few of the more pro- 
gressive growers h:i\-e ship])e(l in luanure from lUiffalo. This costs 
about $28 ])c\- car. but if ap])lied when needed it gives a very large 
rctiu'n. Sonu' ha\ e feared to use- it on account of the danger of getting 
weed seed. There seems to be no troul)le in subduing an}- weeds that 
come with it when it is a])plied to the orchard. There may be some 
danger of animrd diseases being carried in the manure. A niuch larger 
total of manure is secured from the manv smaller cities and towns, but 
this is nsuallx- not obtainable in very large quantities. 

Manure may he proiitahly secured hy the feedin;^ of cattle. — A few 
growers have fed cattle during the winter in order to secure manure. 
This enables them to buy their fertilizer in the form of feed. The cattle 
usually give a fair protit. The manure obtained, added to this, makes 



An Apple Orchard Surn'ey of Wayne County, New York. 277 

the practice quite protitahle. it seems probable that more of this 
winter feeding will be done in the future. The expense of caring for 
stock in the winter is not very great. Hie fertilizing value of the 
feed is frequently over half of its cost.* 

Method of applyiiti^ iiiainirc. — Manure is almost always applied in a 
small circle around the base of the tree. This is a serious mistake. 
The roots of a bearing orchard occujiy all the ground. Those from 
one row may extend beyond the next row. The small feeding roots 
are naturally most numerous at some distance from the tree, much as 
the active twigs are found at the ends of the large branches. The 
manure should therefore be applied to the entire ground. If any place 
is not covered, let it be that near the trunk. Professor Roberts has 
aptly likened the application around the trunk to putting the hay under 
the horse's feet. 

CoTcr-crops. — 'More orchards are in need of hunnis than are in need 
of the direct application of plant-food. For this reason the applica- 
tion of barnyard manure generally gives nuich better results than the 
use of fertilizers. This is particularly true of sod orchards. Tilled 
orchards usually do as well when green manure with ])otash and phos- 
phoric acid are used. On some of the stronger soils no fertilization of 
any kind may be needed for many years, if plenty of green manure is 
plowed under. 

Eight per cent of the mature orchards of the county were sown to cover- 
crops in 1902. Buckwheat was the most common, followed by crim- 
son clover and common red clover. Rye, large clover, cow-peas, alfalfa, 
peas and oats, and vetch were also grown. Buckwheat furnishes a large 
amount of humus and leaves the soil in a friable condition. It is not a 
legume, and so can; not use nitrogen from the air. Crimson clover has 
generally done well, but some growers have had difficulty in getting a 
stand. One man has grown it every other year for fourteen years. 
Common red clover has been most satisfactory when a year of tillage 
has been followed by a year in which the clover is cut and left on the 
land to be plowed under the second year. Peas and oats have given 
good results in most cases. t 



*For tables of the value of the fertilizing elements in various feeds, see Cornt'.'l 
Bulletin 154. 

tl'^or a more extended discussion of orchard cover-crops, see Cornell Bulletin rgS. 



CHAPTER IV. 

Pruning. 

The 'foDiicr methods of pniiiiiig. — Pruning was at first greatly neg- 
lected, just as the majority of orchards were formerly left to fight 
their way in competition with other plants, so the limbs in each tree 
were allowed to fight with each other. ( )nlv a few orchards have 
I)een well pruned from the time of planting. In some pruning was 
almost entirely netiiected for xcars ; in others it was done and is still 



'^ 



~v W Y ^>U/-4 \'f f 



:-<s 



yC- 



y 








' ' 1 "^ 



J'iG. ^y.. — )'i-(iis of nci:,h'ct jclli't^'cd by tuo scvcic f riming. 



d(jne in such a uianntT as to do more harm than good. There is a 
tcndenc}' among cari'lcss farmers to let tlu' trees go for several }-ears 
and then give ihem a "thorough trinnning "" (see I'ig. 4(S ) . rather than 
prune some e\'er\' year, as the careful grower does. Perhaps one-fifth 
(d' the orchards are now well |)runed, and this numl)er is Ijeing added to 
each year, as the number of real fruit-growers increases, ddie problem 
ot ])ruuing among the l)earing trees of \\'a\ne county is, therefore, not 
that of training an ideal tree from the time it is planted; but the far 
more difficult problem of correcting the effects of former neglect. 

//(>7C cjoinids heal. — Intelligent pruning is l)ased on a knowledge of 
the causes ot deca\'. ;md of the wa\' in which winuids heal. 



An Applf. Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 279 

The living- and growing part of a tree is the cambium layer. This 
is a tissue lying upon the outside of the wood and beneath the bark. 
From its outside it produces bark, and from its inside it produces wood. 
It is this layer of young, tender cells that makes the bark " slii) " so readily 
in early summer. The inner part of the tree is not active; its value to the 
tree is in supporting the living part. If this center part decays, the tree 
usually continues to grow till it breaks down (see Fig. ^2). 

This dead inner wood is protected by the bark and living portion 
so that fungi and bacteria cannot reach it. When a large limb is 
removed the seal is broken and the dead wood is exposed. Having 
no life, it cannot resist infection bv germs anv more than a dead log 
can do so. The safety of the tree depends on having the wound 
healed over before it becomes infected. The wound heals by the 
growth of the cambium layer. If the wound is small it will usually 
be sealed up before the fungi get established; but if the dead stub is 
exposed for a long time the wood-rot fungi are almost certain to attack it 
and cause the trunk to decay. If the wound does then heal over, the 
mycelium of the fungi is established and may continue to grow within the 
tree." The decay may reach into the living tissue, luit its most serious 
effects are in so weakening the trunk as to cause it to break down. In 
order to avoid the rotten trunks that are so common in the mai(M'it)' of 
the orchards, three things should be observed : 

1. Large limbs should not be removed unless it is absolutely necessary. 

2. When such linibs must be removed, the pruning should be so done 
as to favor rapid healing of the wounds. 

3. Large wounds should be protected by paint till the tree can seal 
them. 

llic rciiioi'al of lari^c liiiihs. — The itleal way would be to have the 
tree so pruned from the time it is planted that there would never be 
occasion for the removal of large limbs. But very manv orchards 
were neglected so long that it may be necessary to cut out such limbs. 
Eighteen per cent of the orchards are still practically unpruned. In 
a neglected orchard some limbs may be damaged bv neglect or lack 
of food. ( )thers die as a result of the shade caused bv dense tops, or 
the trees being too close together. Even in a well cared for orchard 
an occasional limb will be brcjken by the wind, or l)y too heavy a load 
of fruit, or will die from other causes. Hut much of the removal of 



'Cornell Bulletin i93,Slia(k> Trees and Timber-Destroying Fungi. 



28o 



IjUI.LiniX 22(\ 



lar^v limljs is done without cause. In the orchard shown in I'ig. 48, 
the trees liad Itx) many of these as a result of neglect, hut it would 
ha\e l)een ht'tter to ha\e thinnetl the tops by the removal of small 
l)ranches tlian hy cutting out the scaffold limbs. It takes more time 
to ])rune by the former method, but the time is well spent. l"he ulti- 
mate death of most 
trees can be traced to 
the careless removal 
of large limbs. The 
\'(nmd is too large to 
heal, or the cut is made in 
such a way that it can m 
heal. W'diid-rnt fungi gel a 
foothold and soon tlu' trei' has ' 
a hollow trunk. The wind tluii 
breaks off the branches one b\' one 
till the tree is gone ( see Fig^. =,2 
and 54). 

.S7;//' /^niiiiiij^. — Much can be done 
to ])re\'ent the fungi and bacteria from 
getting a foothold. If tlu' limb is ctit 
close to tlu' body of the tree, and ])arallel 
with it, the tree will be able to heal wounds 
ol considerable size before decav sets in. The 
pruning should be done in such a manner that 
no portion of the am])Utated hrancli i> left. If 
a limb is cut an inch from the bo(l\- the wcnmd 
re(|uirrs luuch longer to heal than it would if 
no stub were left. A stub several inches long 
seldom heals o\-i-r. It has no life of its own, 
ami so nnrst dei)end on material that comes from 
other branches to heal it ; but a i)rojecting stub is out of the line of move- 
ment of the sa]) — it is sidetracked. Instead of healing over the end of 
the stub, a roll of new growth is thrown up around its base wdiere the cut 
should have \)vvn made. 

In a little owv sixteen per cent of the orchards examincfl bad stubs 
were left, varying iu length from one or two inches. to one foot. 




Fig. 49. — Long stubs left 
i^'lici! pniniiig. These 
eaiisc the trunks to de- 
cay and finally result in 
broken trees. 



An AiTLR ()k(1iari) Sl'r\i:n" oi^ ^\'A^"XI•: County, Nkw York. 281 



There are two reasons for leaving these long stubs. One, 1 fear the 
more common one, is because it is easier to do so. Llut many farmers 
leave a long- stub when a large limb must be removed because they think 
that the wound will be too large to heal, and by leaving the long stub 
they hope to keep the rot away from the tree. The rapidity with 
which fungi penetrate the wood after they get started refutes this 
J) r act ice. Success 
must come from 
preventing the start 
of decay, not from 
giving it a long dis- 
tance to travel be- 
fore it gets into the 
trunk. In one fort\- 
acre orchard the 
w n e r left s t u 1 > s 
about a foot long to 
serve as ladders ! 
His successor has 
gone through the 
orchard and cut 
these off and has 
done what was pos- 
sible to prevent 
further decay. 

In Fig. 49 is 
shown a tree with 
long stubs that will 
result in its death. 
Fig. 54 gives what 
will be the next step. 
The outside of this 
stub shows the seed-forming bodies (spore fruits) of the fungi ; Init it does 
not look ver\- bad. while the inside is so decaxed that it only needed a good 
load of fruit to l)reak the tree. Fig. 53 is another stub that will ultimately 
cause the death of the tree. The tape-measure sIkiws how far the stick 
extends into the decayed hole. The decay, of course, goes nuich farther. 
Fig. 50 shows a decayed hole that was caused b\ leaving a large wouncl 




Fig. 50. — Till (u.^-t./ hale caused by zvood-dcstroyiiig 
finiiii. (Sec /'/.i^.v. il and ,^-'.) 



282 



Bulletin 226. 




Fir.. 51. — The saiiir Irrc as Fiii. 50, slniwiiiij, the extent i>f tJic decay. The tree 
7eas ahaut r6 inehes in iHnineler ami had mily about lii'o inehes of S(Uiiid zvood 
on llie outside, a mere shell. Tlie ^^'hite mould is the mycelium of fungi. 



An Apple Orciiaku Sl'kx'ey of Wavxk Counts-, Xi.:\\- ^'()KK. 283 

unpainted. The hole is now neai"l\- closed, l)ut it is too late, as will be 
seen by big. 51. which shows the inside of the same tree. There is onlv 
a few inches of undecayed wood on the outside of the trunk. The white 
mould (mycelium) all through the trunk shows how badly decayed the 
tree is. The tree was a very thrifty one. and was apparently unaffected, 
but the rotted trunk was no longer strong enough to support it ( b'ig. 52). 
Paint should be used on the hirger zcouiids. — Only a very few orchards 
were seen where paint was used. Painting the wounds should become 




Fig. 52. — J he rotten Intnk itsiillcd in the breaking of llic tree. {See Figs. ^^o-_^t.) 



an accepted practice. The ])aint does not help to heal the wounds, nor 
does it hinder healing, as some have supposed. It is to ])revenl the wood- 
rot fungi from getting a foothold. It acts as a ]iartial seal till the tree 
can protect the wound in its own way — b\- healing (^ver the place. It has 
a similar eft'ect as it has on farm machiner}-. It protects from weather and 
prevents fungi and bacteria from causing decay. The cost of painting all 
the wounds above two inches in diameter is not great. If this is done, 
and if the larger ones are repainted every year, the increased longevity of 
the tree will amply repay the cost. One good apple-tree will pay for 



^^4 



LklLLETIN 22(^ 







])aiiUin_y inan\' wounds. Lead painl is llic most satisfactory for this pur- 
pose, hut an\ (hn-al)lc paint is prohaljly ,c^oo(L 

■ Tliiiiniir^ I he loj^s. — If the tops are so dense that air can not circulate 
through tlieni it i> ahiio^t imi)ossihli' to spra_\" well. The moisture 
remains long after e\'er\- rain or dew, and so favors all kinds of fungous 
growths. The fruit will he of ])i)iir (|uality and ])oorly colored. Dense 
tops fa\nr the de\elopmcnt of insects and diseases, l)ut not of api:)les. 

The frontispiece sliows a 
w ell- p r u n e d tree. Notice 
that the light shines throug-h 
the to]) in spite of the fact 
that there is a large crop of 
fruit and excellent foliage. 
(Contrast this with l-'ig. 5<). 
lUit even this latter orchard 
is l)etter iM'uned than the 
average. 

f'niiiiiii; should rary re//// 
/he fhrifl of the frees. — If an 
(irchard is so treated that the 
lea\es are small and the 
growth ver\ little, many 
more liml)s should l)e left 
llian in a thrift\ orchard. 
\'i)n\- color of the fruit in 
tilled orchards could he im- 
])i-o\-e(l to some extent if 
these trees were pruned 
more o])enly. The tree in 
the frontis]:»iece shows ideal 
conditions. The air and 
light can lilter thrcuigh the 
to]) and reach everx' leaf and ever\- api)le. If this tree were not tilled or 
fertilized it coidd have ahout doul)Ie the numher of limhs without making 
the tops an\' denser. A neglected tree wotdd he a mere skeU'ton it i)runed 
as this thrift\' tree is i)runed. 

11 'hen /'v ///(' hesi /line to f^nnie.' — As a result of a series of experiments 
in i)runin<j- at various times in the \ear Professor Bailev concludes as 



Im 



^ — Tlie loiiii sliib r(nifiiiiicJ. Tlic l(i!'< 
slnnes //ere far llic slide exfriuls iiili> llh 
ri'llni Iniiik. 



An Apple Orchard Sitr\-i.:y oi- W.wxk (\)u\rN', Xi-.w \'*)rk. 285 

follows: "The conclusion, — and ni_\- general ()])inion, — in resix'ct to the 
season of pruning', so far as the healing' of wcjunds is concerned, is this: 
The ideal time is in spring. 
i>efore growth begins (late 
February. March and earl\- 
April in Xew York:) but 
more depends on the i)i)sition 
of the wduncl in the tree and 





Fig. 55.— 77/t- crolch wliirli 
■i^'ill i^rohahly cause llic 
tree to splii. Que of the 
leaders should be rciv.oved. 



Fic. 54. — The loiiii stub resulted in Ihe Jn-olceii 
tree. 

ihe length of the stul) than ()n the time of 
year.'"'" 'Ihe l)est time to ])rune will gener- 
ally lie the time when labor is least expen- 
si\'e. 

Ho'ir to treat crotches. — Idic best \vay to 
treat a crotch is ne\er tt) allow one to form: 
l)nt when one secures an orch;ird in which 
the}' are already formed he must do what 
is ])ossible to correct the weakness. 

In ]'"ig. 55 is shown ;i young tree with a 
l)ad crotch that will be quite certain to ruin it. 
( )ne of the forks should be cut off. I'^ig. 56 
shows the trunk of an old tree similarly 
pruned. Fig'. 57. from the same orchard as 



^The Pruning-Book. fourtli edition. IQ02, 



_>sr) 



Bui.LI'/nN 22Ck 




Fic. 56.- 


-riu 


("(;;( /'(• 


S(i:\ 


the /u 


ha 



• rrsiili of had crotches. The trc, 
(I for finllicr usefulness by bolliiit 
'res to"clJiei: 



'''.^'- S*^'' shows two <il tlic 
split trees and several vacant 
spaces where l)roken trees 
h a \' e been removed. 
Xearlv oiie-fourth of the 
trees in this seven-acre 
orchard are already 1)roken 
down, and as many more 
arc si>lit. d here are only 
a few orchards in the hnn- 
dreds examined in which 
the trees were tlms sys- 
lematic~all\' ))rnned t() form 
crolche>, hnt in a larj^'e 
iinmher of orchards a few 
trees ha\e them. 

ddu' split trees and those 
ihal are in dant^'er of split- 
ting- can \et be sa\'ed by 
the nsc' of bolts. A band 
])ut aronnd a tree will 
^i^'irdle it, bnt a bolt pnt 
thron,f;h it does no ai)]:)re- 




Fro. ^j — TJir fmal result of had crotches. 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 287 



ciable damag-e. If two bolts that hook into a connecting chain of 

suitable length are used, the work can be much more easily done. The 

two holes are then not necessarily in the same line. The chain also- 

allows for variation 

in length. ( )ne bolt 

is put through one 

branch, the other is 

put nearly through 

the other branch, 

and the chain is 

hooked on at the 

proper length. The 

bolts are then 

di'awn up. i)v bolts 

with hooks or rings 

on one end may be 

used and strong 

vvire used to fasten 

them together. 

X umber of scaf- 
fold limbs. — In Fig. 
58 is shown a tree 
with too man}- scaf- 
fold, or frame work, 
limbs. The time to 
avoid this is when 
the tree is young. 
Some of the smaller 
limbs might still be 
removed with safety if the wounds are kept well painted. 




Fig. 58.— Too ;/ ,1,:] ^ .-" Half of //;c.s. 

hai'c been pruned out 'a'lieii the tree zvas young. 



288 



P>ri.i.i-/n.\ 226. 











-^'-CC^t^S^S 



r^'-~ "~ ■f"'*-^''^^'w^«r.^"v^'^ 







The iisiiiil inclhixl of snrlitr^ in Orlnnis (■nmily — dircclly front the lahle. 




I'ieking from llie lehle — n slox^w bnt more careful melliod of sorlinj. 



CHAPTER V. 
Spkavixg. 

The extent of the practice. — The fact that so many growers evaporate 
their entire crop gives rise to a general laxit\- in spraying. A Httle over 
41 per cent of the trees set before 1880 were sprayed in 1903. One-third- 
are seldom or never sprayed. 

In iyo2 most bnyers of a])ples for evaporating paid the same price 
regardless of the scab fungus. This fungus does not seriously damage 
apples for evaporating unless it is so bad that it stunts or distorts the 
apple or makes it crack. ( See b'ig. 81.) In 1902 it was very bad in many 
orchards. The clean apples were generally considered to be worth more, 
but were bought at the same price, as one man said. " in order to keep 
peace in the neighborhood." This puts a premium on neglect and prob- 
ably accounts for the large number who do not believe in spraying and 
for the considerable number of those who do spray but do not use the 
Bordeaux mixture. 

Effects of sprayiir^ on the yield ond f>riee. — The damage from insects 
and the apple-scab in 1903 was much less than usual. But even in this 
year of few insects and little fungus, when most peojjle " saw nothing 
to spray for," spraying paid. The average yield of the sprayed orchards 
was 2/ bushels more than that of the unsprayed. (See table 19). This 
was probably due chiefly to the prevention of the large loss caused by 
the bud-moth and to the loss from the codlin-moth. The l)ud-moth 
did considerable damage in man\- orchards, l:)ut its work was not com- 
monly seen, or if seen, was attributed to a bad wind that made many 
leaves turn brown at about the time when the bud-moth caused the young 
shoots to die. The codlin-moth causes man\- ajiples to fall early in the 
season. A part of the difference may be due to other factors as the sprayed 
orchards averaged a little better in other treatment. 

Tai'.le ig. 
Yield ill bushels in rgos of sprayed and unsprayed orehards. Trees set before r88o. 



Sprayed 



No. of 1 No. of I .Average yield 

orchards. I acres. per acre. 



66 626^4 ' -280 



Unsprayed ■. 107 673 253 



289 



290 



Bulli:tix 226. 



Tablk 20. 
Price per barrel of sprayeii mid iinspraycd apples in 1903. 



Sprayed . . . 
Unspraycd 



No. I if barrels. 



8.430 
6,365 



Average price 
per barrel. 



p 02 
I 80 



Ta1!I,K _m, 

.■Iz'cragc price per bushel of sf^i-nyed and iiiisprayed apl^les in WOj. 



Xn. i.f bushels. 



Average price 
per bushel. 



Sprayed 

Sprayed, dried l)y grower . . . 

Unsprayed 

Unsprayed, dried by grower 



110.445 
63. 145 
96. 345 
64, 305 



$0 31.8 
^7-7 



The average price per barrel of the sprayed apples was $2.02 ; of the 
unsi)ra}'e(l, $[.80. I^'roni the si)ra_\c'(l orchards 15 per cent of the crop 
was barreled: from the unspra\ed. 12 i)er cent. \\ ithont considering" the 
ai)ples that we-re evapoVated by the grower, the average price of sprayed 
apples was 3 1 .S eeiits \)vv Inishel ; of nnsi)ra\ed. 2J.J cents. 

If we count the' ap])k's that were cx'aporated b\- the growers as worth 
20.7 cents, the average price paid for apples b\ the evaporators, then the 
income ])er acre from spra\ed orchards ax'eraged $77.84; from the 
unspra_\-ed. $()3. ( See tal)les 20 and 21. ) 

Most of the spraved orchards were si)rayed l)ut once. A]_)ples from 
manv <d' these brought no higiu'r ])rices than unsprayed t)nes, but some 
of those that were well sprayed gave so much better yields and secured 
so much higher prices that they were able to raise the average as shown 
above. 

7'lir hinds of sf^rays used. — Xearly one-fifth of the trees that were 
s])ra\ed recei\'ed ap])lications of arsenical jxiison sprays (»nly. The 
smaller orchards were (piile commonh' so treated. This one-fifth of the 
area included one-third of the number of sjirayed orchards. Tn 21 orchards 
f'aris green and water \wre used without an\- other materials. (See table 
22.) In v\c\\ of this and of the exceiUiouall}' favorable year the showing 
made by such spraying as was dcmc is satisfactorw 



An Apple Orchard Survey oe Wayne County, New York. 291 

Arsenic is coming to be quite commonly used instead of Paris green, 
particularly in the larger orchards. Tt stays in suspension better than 
Paris green and is somewhat cheaper. Arsenic was used in 58 per cent 
of the area and in 36 per cent of the number of sprayed orchards. 



Table 22. 
Spraying in 1903. Trees set before iSSo. 



No. or- 
chards. 



W,\L\VORTH. 

No. acres. 



Sprayed I 144 741 

Sometimes sprayed — 

not in 1903 126 4^7 'i 

Seldom or never spray'd 64 ^sj-'A 



Per 

Lent. 



50 

33 
18 



Remainder of County. Entirk County. 



No. or- 
chards. 



No. acres. 



Per No. or- 
cent. chards. 



37 



No. acres. 



Per 
cent. 



35 ' 181 I 1439''^ ' 41 



35 406 '2 ; -'0 i 161 893-^4 26 

55 I 882 M 45 119 1 140 3i 



Sprayed. . . . 
Un sprayed . 



Arsenic 

Paris green. 



Trees set si nee iS/Q. 
18 83 I 42 3 I 80 , 19 I -21 I 163 I 26 

40 112'-' 5'"^ ! 19 343 ' '"^i 59 1 455 '2 ' 74 

Poisiiii used. 

25 j 170 , 41 i 19 I 458'-' 1 69 I 44 j A29K i 58 



5<S 1 241 i 59 : 19 ' -'09'2 I 31 
Bordeaux mixture used. 



Poison only 

Poison and Bordeaux . 



33 1 1-2-^ 
50 I 289 



^ ; 74 
30 622 



III 41 
89 ' 80 



450 '2 I 4^ 

196 j 18 
911 82 



Si-x orchards were sprayed with lime, salt and sulftu" for the San 
jose scale. Une of these did not have any of the scale within about 
ten miles, but the owner was afraid it ntight come. .\ few }'oimg orchards 
were sprayed with kerosene enuilsiun for aphids. 

Many of the owners of these small orchards have used l!ordeaux mix- 
ture at some time or other, and because one careless ap|)lication did not 
keej) the apples entirely free from fungus have concluded that the copper 
stdfate was of no value. Some even cite the effects of s])ra\ing with 
Paris green and lime as evidence that spraying does not atfect the ftmgus. 
The failure of i'aris green to kill the aphids, which were ((tiite bad in 
1903, is also cited to show the ftitility of spraying. ( )f course those 
who conduct apple-growing on a good business basis are not among 
these.'^' 



*There are three general classes of sprays: i. Poisons. 2. .Sprays that kill insects 
by contact. 3. Fungicides. 

The insects that chew are the only orchard enemies that we can expect to kill 
with Paris green, arsenic or other poisons of this nature. The lice, San Jose scale 



292 Bulletin 226. 

Jl'licn is the best time to spray^ — The number of spraying's and the 
time to give them must be determined by the season and the objects for 
which a man is spraying". I!ut many of the enemies, Hke the apple-scab, 
must be treated before they appear. The time of attack by this fungus 
varies to some extent in (hilerent years. (See page 335 for a discussion 
of the fungus.) In the 564 orchards examined in ( )rleans county in 
i(;o4 it was foinid tliat those apples that were not s])rayecl iimncdiatcly 
after blossoming were invarial)ly scabliy, regardless of the earlier and 
later s])rayings. To keep the fruit in the best condition more sprayings 
wei\^ needed, but this was l)}- far the most im])ortant application. If there 
is much rain during the Idossoming jieriod and for two to three weeks 
followini;- mt)re sprayiui^'s will, of course, be necessary than in a dry .season. 
Xo hard and fast rules can be given, but unless some special enemy 
threatens the croj) the best times will 1)e about as follows: 

If three si)rayings are given, one just before Idossoming, one iniiitcdi- 
afcly after blossoming, and one from ten to fourteen days later, will .gen- 
erally qive the best results. If two are given, omit the first or third. 
The second and third are the important cjucs for the codlin-moth. If 
only one spra\inQ' is given it will usuallv do the most good if a])plied 
immediately after blossoming. For the bud-moth and case-bearer a 
spraying is needed just as the leaf buds begin to ojx'u. 

Do not expect too much from one spraying. If vou s"ive three thorough 
applications you will, under ordinary conditions, have a right to expect 
clean fruit. 

Some \ears, as in 1003, good fruit is grown without spraying; but these 
_\ears can not l)e foretold. If we wait till the fungus shows, it is too late 
to sjM'ay. The most successful men spray every year. The\' consider 
spraying as insurance. They spray even if there is no crop, for thev 

.111(1 (ither insects tli.'it suck their food, are nrit luirt 1>\- poisons for tlie very simple 
reason tliat they can not eat poison. \\"e would not expect to kill a mosquito hy 
])utting ])oison on the hand .and letting him suck the hlood from under it — his food. 
tlu> hlood. is not |)oisoned. These in>ects feed in a similar m.anner. Idiey suck the 
juices from the pl.ant .and do not t.ake .any material from the surface. They must 
he killed hy kerosene; whale oil soa]) ; lime, salt and sulfur, or hy some other 
spray that kills hy cont.act. Only those which are hit hy the spray are killed. 

Tile various fungi are plants. We might call them weeds that have chosen to 
grow on the apple rather than on the ground. They can not eat Paris green nor are 
they killed t)y kerosene and such sprays. For them some fungicide, as Bordeaux 
mixture, must he used. 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 293 

consider that ofood. clean foliage is necessary in order to form the next 
year's frnit-buds and in order to store up food for the next year's crop. 

JViiifcr treatment for apple-scab. — Quite a number of farmers are con- 
sidering" the advisability of spraying for the scab before the buds open. 
This treatment will not take the place of later applications. If one gives 
it he should do so with the understanding that it is in addition to the later 
sprayings, and not a substitute for them. 

" When these are made the winter treatment docs not bring sufficient 
additional benetit to justify the additiouial exijense of making it against 
the scab alone, but it may pay when directed also against the canker 
disease and combined with some application which must be made against 
insects such as case-bearers or bud-moth. 

" It is known that the seal) lives during the winter on the fallen leaves 
and in the spring produces spores by means of which it spreads to the 
new foliage. Probably it may exist during winter to some extent on the 
bark of young twigs also. Granting that this is the case and that a large 
part of the fungus on the tree is killed by winter treatment, which is 
improbable, it is evident that when the new foliage appears it must be 
covered with some fungicide to protect it from the spores produced on 
the fallen leaves. * '■' *" * 

Method of applying the spray. — In order to do effective spraying there 
must be plent}' of power back of the pump. Good work is sometimes 
done with hand pumps, but the tops of large trees are not often well 
sprayed, nor is the work usually as well done with these machines as 
when pow'er s])rayers are used. The power sprayer is rapidly displacing 
the hand pump. 

Many orchardists go through the orchard twice for each spra\ing — 
always spraying with the wind. The first time through may be done at 
the most convenient opportunity. For the second wait till the wind has 
reversed. Three sprayings therefore require six trips through the 
orchard. This method secures thorough spraying for each side of the tree. 

Ritsseting of thr fruit. — .\ sound and perfect fruit souietimes shows 
areas where the skin is reddish brown and rough. This is coiumonly 
attributed to too strong a spray. It is frequently caused in that way. 
l;)ut in 1903 and 1904 apples in many misprayed orchards were russeted. 
It is caused by any irritation of the skin of the fruit. This is caused by 
"too strong a spray, by late frosts that hurt the skin of the \oung apple, 



^Bulletin 170, New York Agricultural T-lxperiuieut .Statimi, Geneva, X. \' 



294 RULLETIX 226. 

or by anything' else that irritates the skin. To prevent injury from the 
Bordeaux mixture pk-nt}' of hmc must be used. l'\)ur pounds of blue 
vitriol to fifty gallons of water is sufficient for the later sprayings. This 
lessens the danger of russeting and seems to be etlective in preventing 
the seal) fundus. Six pounds to fifty gallons of water are ordinarily used 
for the hrst spraying. 

/>(/;//(/-(■ /(' /()//(?_i^(' fro))i sprayin_i^. — ddie foliage is sometimes burnt by 
lo(* strong- a spra\. This is i)articularl_\- likely to occur in rair.y weather. 
I iowever, most of the spots on the leaves tluit are attrilnited to the spray 
are not due to the spra_\'. InU to fungi. (See page 340.) 

Professor ( i. \\ . C'avanaugh ,t;ives the following suggestious about 
sprayiui..;' in raiu) weather: 

in the preparation i)i I'.ordeaux mixture, which is made from a solu- 
tion' of blue vitriol and lime, there is a dehnite chemical union brought 
about between the cop])er of the vitriol and the lime. In order that this 
union may occur, the lime must l)e in a water-slaked condition, chemicall}' 
known as calcium h\(lro\ide. Should the lime be air-slaked, i. e. in the 
form ot carbonate of lime, tins chemical union with the co]:)per does not 
take place. The action of the carbonic acid (jf the air on water-slaked 
lim(.' is to chani^'e ilie lime to the air-slaked forin. 

■■ d he chenncal um'on ])etween the lime ancl the co])per in the Bordeaux 
mixture is not a very stable one. In fact, it is so weak that the carbonic 
acid of the air can, under certain conditions, break up the union and 
chani^e e\'en that lime which was combined with the co])per into air- 
slaked lime, ddiis. of necessity, frees the co])per and piUs it in a condi- 
tion similar to that where an insufficient amount of lime is used in the 
orii^iial mixtnre. Idus action of the carbonic acid of the air is facilitated 
if the mixture remains moist for a considerable time on the foliage. The 
resnit of this is a burnin,<;- of the leaves by the free cop])er sulfate. When 
the mixture dries on the trees this action oi the ,Q"as is so nuich retarded 
that no injurious results have ever l)een noticed. Tt therefore seems a 
wise ]M"ecaution, during- a wet season at least, to use more lime than the 
formula ordinarih- calls for." 



CHAPTER \1. 

Renovating an Apim.e Ukciiaku j.x \\'i-:sti:rx New York. 

by christian bues. 

Witli tlie increase of our knowledge of the "■ how " of apple-production 
conies naturally a greater interest in the api)le business. Out of a few 
apple-trees around the house has grown the commercial orchard. The 
manager of a large orchard enters the open market. He learns the value 
of business methods. He looks for opportunities in the business of apple- 
production. To plant young trees and nurse them into bearing age is a 
long-term investment. It should be profitable ultimately. J hit how shall 
he find an outlet for his energies while his trees are growing; how 
shall he improve his trade ; in short, where is the immediate opportunity 
for business ? 

There are thousands of acres of apple orchards of bearing age in 
Western New York which are not giving the revenue that they ought to 
give. Many of these can l)e bought at a reasonable price. If the trees 
are in a fairlv good state of health the renovation of such orchards may 
be profital)le. We have heard a great deal during the last few years about 
this feature of fruit-raising. What are the actual facts ? A concrete 
example will illustrate better than any am<^unt of theory. 

In 1896 Mr. George Pettit bought a " run down '" farm at Kenyon- 
ville, Orleans county, N. Y. The farm was neglected. Therefore the 
price paid was not high. Fifty-four acres were bought for $2,200. On 
the farm was an ap])]e orchard of eleven acres, two acres of which had 
])een drowned out. literally killed b\- standing water, when an outlet could 
be found not more than fifty yards away into the stee]^ gorge of Oak 
Orchard creek. This left nine acres of orchard with which to work. 
The trees had been planted in the spring of 18^14. i. e. the>' were thirty-two 
years old and should have been just entering into their prime of 
])roduction. 

The soil on which this orchard stands is Miami silt loam. (See page 
317.) On the remaining nine acres the drainage was not perfect. 
Because of lack of care the trees were older than their actual age would 
indicate. Pruning and feeding had been sadly neglected, and canker was 
rapidl\- unfitting many limbs for the bearing of a crop. "Sir. Pettit tells 
me that it was in about as bad a state as regards care as it could 
possibly be. 

293 



296 Bulletin 226. 

The i)i'ol)lem of renovation was undertaken witli vigor. The water was 
(h-ained otT, tlie land was plowed, and thus the soil brought into such a 
conditiou that the plant-food would be available. The trees were freed 
of dead wood, the worst eanker-diseased linil)s removed, and the wdiole 
was disiufected b\- the liberal use of llordeaux mixture and arsenic. 
I 'lant-food was supi^lied to ])roduce the most essential crop — new wood. 
The following tabulates the cultural method: 
1896. ( Orchard was iu sod ; the grass was luowed. 
i8(;7. ( )rchard was ])lowed and beans were grown. 

1898. ( )rchard was maniu'ed and beans grown again, followed by crim- 

son clover. 

1899. ( )rchard was manured and crimson clover plowed under. 
1900-1904. ( )rchar(] has l)een manured every year and buckwheat is 

growu, to be rolled down toward ripening time of the fruit. 

During the last three \ears every tree in the orchard received each year 
one-quarter of a load of manure, \o which was added in 1904 for each 
tree 12 ])ounds of a good commercial fertilizer containing 8 per cent 
potash and 10 per cent phosphoric acid. 

Spraying has always been faithfully done, crop or no crop : for Mr. Pettit 
knows that he must have a healthy vigorous tree before he can obtain a 
profitable cro]). Here is the spraying program of the season of 1904: 

First spra\': When blossom buds began to swell. 

Second si)ray: As soon as the l:)lossoms dropped. 

Third s|)ra\" : About two weeks after second si)ray. 

b\iurth spra\ : A partial sjM'ay July 25. This had no apparent effect. 

The spray used was Ilordivaux mixture and Paris green, slightly 
decreasing the amount of blue vitriol with each successive s]>raying. 

This orchard may well be called a " reiuvenated " orchard, for hardly 
any of the old tree-tops exist now. The Ivings, Greenings and Russets 
have grown entirely new tops in the course of the eight years during 
which Mr. Pettit has handled the trees, and the l>aldwins are doing so. 
although at a slower rate. I remember one particular Spitzenburg tree 
which tells the story ot man}" hardships, lly continued si)ra\ing and 
generous feeding the man\' old cankers are nearlv overgrown bv new 
wood, and a new top has been ])roduced which looks vigorous and 
healthy and ready to do business for manv vears to come. 

Now if we want to renovate orchards for l)irsiness, how does the 
account of this orchard balance?* Is it worth while to borrow money in 
order tn in\-est it in orchard renovation?^ ?\Ir. Pettit kiuflb' placed at my 



An Apple Orchard SuR\■E^■ oi' Wavxe County. Ni'AV York. 297 

disposal an itemized account for the season of 1904. The price charged 
for team and machinery is large enough to allow for " wear and tear." 
To the debit should be added interest on capital invested. Every hour 
of work done in the orchard by the proprietor or by his men has been 
chargfed to it. 



.Ift'i-' orcliarJ. 



1904. 
I line 



Tu 8 days' hauling and 
spreading manure. at 
?i.5o 

fo 3 days' teams for haul- 
ing, at $j 

To 80 loads of manure, 
at $1.50 

To 1 1/2 tons commercial 
fertilizer, at $jo 

To 2 days' pruning, at $-! . 

To 3 days' hauling brush. 

To 5 days' work, spraying. 
3 men and team, at $7 . 

To I day dragging with 3 
horses 

To I day dragging with 2 
horses 

To 2 days' spreading fer- 
tilizers 

To I day dragging with 3 
horses 

To I day hoeing arouml 
trees 

To I day with team 

To I day cleaning out 
ditches 

To 1 1-4 days' cultivating, 

at $4 

June 20. To 314 days' spraying, at 
$7 

To I day getting material. 

To 30 lbs. Paris green, at 
i8c 

To 400 lbs. blue vitriol, at 
5%c 

To 4 barrels of lime, at 

.,$1.25 _ 

To I pair of pruning 

shears 

July 6. To 1 day of dragging. . . . 

To V2 day sowing buck- 
wheat 

25. To spraying 3 hours, at 



Aug. 13 
16 
17 
18 
27 



To spraying mi.xture 

To 7 bushels buckwheat 
seed, at 75c 

To 4 hours' breaking buck- 
wheat 

To dragging down buck- 
wheat, I horse 

To dragging down buck- 
wheat, I horse 

To iiropping trees, 2 men 
and team 

To propping trees, 2 men 
2V2 days 

To 1,840 empty barrels, at 

36c ; 

To harvesting 1.840 bar- 
rels of fruit and hauling 
to the railroad, at 25c. .. 

Ball! nee 



Debit. 



6 


00 


120 


00 


30 


00 


4 


00 


5 


00 


4-' 


00 


4 


00 


3 


00 


4 


00 


4 


00 


I 


.so 


3 


00 


I 


50 


6 


00 


-4 
3 


50 


5 


40 


•^3 


00 


5 


00 




GO 


3 





I 


00 




10 




70 


5 


-'5 


I 


60 



3 


00 


10 


00 


66j 


40 


460 


00 


r.Jdo 


55 



Apple orelidi-d. 

1904. Credit. 

Hv 1.765 barrels of ajiiiles. \o. 1. at 

$1.50 $2,647 SO 

iiy 75 barrels of apples. No. 2, 

at $"i 7500 



Thus our account for this year gives a net profit above expenses of 
$1,260.55. To do justice to tlie orchard it is fair to state that at the date 



2<;S r>i-i,i,i:rix 22f^. 

when the figures were received there remained ahout 1,300 bushels of 
apples in the orchard which might have l)(jen sold as evaporating stock 
had not the evaporators been filled to their utmost capacit}-. 

tlow do the cro])s taken from the orcharel compare with the original 
investment"^ It is not possible to give these figures net, as an itemized 
exj^ense account is not available. The gross returns from the orchard are : 

i8yC) $250 00 

1897 1 2 00 

1 898 800 00 

1 899 200 00 

1 900 1 ,200 00 

1 90 1 300 00 

1902 2,000 00 

1 903 1 ,400 00 

1904 2.y22 50 

It will be seen that there is a gradual .^'eneral increase in the amount 
iif the efdp. Xaturalh there exists a corres])ondinQ' increa>e in the cost 
of production and marketing. 

]n a considerable percentage of Xew ^'nrk orchards the renovating 
])rocess has begun. It can not be done according- to a fixed schedule. 
Conditions in one orchard are not often the same as in ancjther. 1 low- 
e\'er, the ex])eriences of other men and close ol)servatic>n will soon lead 
one in the ri,i4"ht direction. Two thinj^'s are most needed. The first is 
the consideration ot the orchard as a l)usiness |)roi)osition, with which 
we enter into an account and from which we want to exact a fair ])rofit. 
We ma_\- have to wait a few years for the retiu'us, but we must look for 
ultimatt' profus. The usual exi)erience is that \'i.i;"orousl\- renovated 
orchards l)ei4in to ^iw fair returns in about three' wars, but this depends 
on the Condition ot the trees and the maimer of treatment. idle second 
important tactor is: the man who takes char.L;e of the orchard should 
IvMiow and low an ai)i)le-tree. lie should be able to put hiiu^elf into its 
position and to realize the varic)ns inlluences which this or that line of 
treatment would have upon a li\-ing organism. Onlv then can he under- 
stand such things as why a soil needs draining and wh\- parasites 
should lie kejit off. Tt is not so much an\- particular kind of soil that 
])roduces the apple, or an\- special brand of fertilizer, or an\- individual 
sprayini.;- mixtiu'e. The essential thinci- is the crop of thought raised in 
the well-cultivated mind of a naturc-loA-inc:' man. 



CHAPTER VII. 
Number of Tri:i:s Pi:k Acre axd Distaxce Between Trees. 

Tlic trees arc planted too close tOi^cther. — One of the greatest enemies 
of the apple orchard in Wayne county, as in most other apple-growing- 
regions, is the apple-tree. \\'hen the greater part of the orchards were 
planted, ahout fort\' years ago, there was a universal tendency to plant 
too closelv. On 43 per cent of the area planted hefore 1880 the trees 
are 30 x 30 feet or less; 82 per cent are 35 x 35 feet or less. Only 18 
per cent are over 35 x 35 feet : and a part of these were planted more 
closely but have been thiimed. (See table 2 7,.) 

Table 23. 
Disfaiicr bctii'ccn trees. 



Planted before iS8o. 



Planted sinxe iS 



DISTAXCE APART. 



Not over 25x25 It. 
26.X26 to 30x30 . . . . 
31x31 to 35x35 •■ ■ ■ 
36x36 to 40x40 . . . . 
41x41 to 50x50 ... 



Average 
no. trees 
per acre. 



52 
-27 



No. 
orchards. 



55 
198 

7.3 



No. 
acres. 



151 ^'2 
I 16534 

II95 

534 .'i 



Per 

cent. 



5 
38 

39 
18 



Average ^^ | jj„_ I p^^ 

no. treo orchards. I acres, j cent 
per acre. 1 I 



70 
51 

-'7 
•9 



3 

-'7 
-'4 
31 

6 



4 

ii8;4 

328 
61 



.A.verage ninnber of trees per acre. 
Average distance apart 



Planted 
before i83o. 



43 ■ 6 
31.6 



Planted 
since 1879. 



33 • - 
36.2 



All ages. 



41.8 



A comparison with the recent plantings shows that many growers have 
learned not to plant so closely, .\earl_\- two-thirds of the area set since 
1879 has the trees 35 x 35 feet or over, the average distance being 3O.2 
feet or 33.2 trees per acre, as compared with a distance of 31.') feet and 
43.6 trees for the older orchards. Some growers have not \et learned 
the lesson, and need to have their attention called to it. l-'orty by forty 
feet is close ejiough for nearly all varieties. The Duchess. Wealthy and 
a few other varieties might perhaps be planted a little closer. Mature 
Baldwin and Greening trees should be at least 40 x 40 feet apart. 



299 



300 Bulletin 226. 

About one-fourth of the orchards in \\'ahvorth township were planted 
on the quincunx system with the rows 20 feet apart and the trees 40 feet 
apart in the row. This makes the trees in squares 28.4 x 28.4 feet, 
cornerwise of the field. Some nurserymen recommended this system 
with the idea of removing' every other row, so as to leave the trees 40 x 40 
feet. A few growers did this before much damage had l)een' done by 
crowding, and may have secured enough fruit from the extra trees to 
pay for the increased labor which these trees necessitated. 

Outside of Walworth this system was much less used, but the trees 
averaged almost the same distance apart. Rather than l)lame the nursery- 
men who recommended the thinning s_\slem, as some have done, we 
should give them credit for fx'ing better informed than mixst persons of 
that time, for they recognized that mature trees would need to l)e 40 x 40 
feet. ( )ther persons planted equally close without having any idea that a 
part would need to be cut out. 

This system may be all right if carried out, but it is certainly not to 
be recommended to the general public. Few ])eople have the courage to 
cut down good, thriftv trees. If thev do thin them it is usuall}' not done 
until the trees have l)een greatly damaged — all the lower linil)s killed. 
It will be l)etter for uKjst persons to leave out half the trees and raise 
crops in the orchard fur a few more vears. or plant some short-lived fruit 
like peach-trees, that \\\\\ die l)efore the apple-trees need the room. 

Effect of close filaittiiii^ on yield ami lieaifli. — The nn^re trees per acre 
the less the yield. The average \\v\i\ for four vears of orchards where 
the trees are not over 30 x 30 feet ai)art is iSf) bushels; for those over 
30 X 30 feet but not over 35 x 35 feet, 222 bushels ; for those over 35 x 35 
feet, 229 bushels. (See table 24.) 

The question is still more important tlian these figures indicate. In 
man\- orchards tlie trees are being ruined because thev are so close 
together. In < )rleans county more growers have removed half the trees, 
but few in Wayne county have yet done so, and more attention needs 
to be given to the ([uestion. Farmers usually fail to notice what is hap- 
pening imtil the trees have 1)een greatly damaged. The decrease in yield 
does not call attention to the tron])le till it is too late. When the tops 
l)egin to meet so as to shut out the light from the lower limbs it is time 
to cut riut half the trees. (See Fig. 50.) If this is not done the lower 
limbs first bear inferior fruit, then no fruit, and finally die. The changes 
take place so gradually that the owner usually fails to realize what is 



An Apple ORCiTApn Survey of Wayne County. New York. 301 



Table 24. 
Distance apart and yield in bushels. Trees set before 1880. 



DISTANCE APART. 



1900. 

Not over 30x30 feet 
31x31 to 35x35 feet. 
36x36 to 40x40 feet. . 

1901. 
Not over 30x30 feet. 
31x31 to 35x35 feet . 
36x36 to 40x40 feet . 

1902. 
Not over 30x30 feet. 
31x31 to 35x35 feet . 
36x36 to 40x40 feet . 

1903. 
Not over 30x30 feet. 
31x31 to 35x35 feet . 
36x36 to 40x40 feet . 



W.ALWORTH. 



Xo. or- 
chards. 



78 
32 
18 



83 
33 



154 
77 
50 



65 
29 

27 



Aver- 
age 
yield. 



285;^ 
140J4 

• 93 



282 
389 
332 



3 1 0^4 38 
206 60 
192 



356;+^ 
38o;< 

338;'< 



274 X 

137 

254;^ 



229 
249 
256 



252 

309 
302 



Remainder of County. 



No. or- 
chards. 



23 
21 



44 
34 
II 



23 
12 

5 



305 >< 

2I7>^ 

8o;4 



334>^ 
255^ 
100 J4 



604;^ 
682>^ 
115^ 



342; 2 

II2>^ 

74 K 



Aver- 
age 
yield. 



Entire County. 



No, or- 
chards. 



231 


100 


264 


50 


224 


24 


30 


106 


8,^ 


62 


81 


41 


212 


198 


212 


III 


220 


6i 


215 


88 


224 


51 


28 1 


32 



590,^4 

358 

I73>^ 



64434: 

461 

292;^ 



116034 
1063 

454 



616,34 
249 'i 
329 



Aver- 
age 
yield. 



256 
314 
282 



34 
75 



220 
226 
249 



232 
271 
296 



Four-year average : 

Not over 30 x 30 foet 186 bushels 

31x31 to 35 >■ 35 f^-et 222 

T,6 X ;^6 to 40 X 40 feet 22q 

It might seem that the closer plantings would include many old trees, but tlie 
change in the distance apart has been made largely since 1S80. 

happening till some year he finds that instead of an orchard of well- 
rounded apple-trees he has a lot of forest trees with a bouqtiet of leaves 
at the top. 

In the end the bearing- surface becomes the nearly level surface on the 
tops of the trees. This is a very small surface when compared with a 
succession of well-rounded tops. (See frontispiece.) If trees are 30 x 30 
feet and are left till they interfere so as to kill the lower limbs, the bearing 
surface approaches the level surface on the top of the trees. Each tree 
approaches 900 scjuare feet of exposure to stmlight. or bearing surface : 
or two trees approach 1,800 square feet. This is what was done in the 
orchard shown in Fig. 60. The owner of this orchard started to cut out 
half the trees about ten years ago. lie cut down one tree, but it seemed 
to make such a big hole that he decided to prune them instead. The 



302 



Bulletin 226. 



vKs^B^sa 







fc 



An Api'li': ()R(ii.\Rn Survkv oi- VVavn'k CorNTY, Nkw York. 



303 



figure shows the result. Suppose half of the trees had been cut out at 
the proper time, they would then be 42.4 x 42.4 feet. This was done 
by Mr. All)ert Woods in the orchard sIkjwu in J^^ig-. 61. These trees 
average about 2^2 feet high and have a spread of about 40 feet. The area 
of the surface of a well-rounded tree :i^2 feet high and having a spread 
of 40 feet is a])out 4.000 square feet. Trees of this size still lack 2.4 feet 
of meeting, and 30 
per cent of the surface 
of the ground is ex- 
posed to light — none 
too much. In other 
words the_\- are a 
reasonable distance 
apart, but the one 
tree has at least twice 
as much bearing sur- 
face as the two trees 
in the former orchard. 
This calculation as- 
suiues the tree to 
have a regular form 
and is, of course, 
hypothetical, Init it 
clearly indicates that 
there are two reasons 
why trees that are 
planted too closely do 
not bear as much as 
dO' those that have 
more room : ( 1 ) They 
are not as healthy. 
(2) They do not have as much bearing surface. 

Trees that are too close together furnish favorable conditions for fungi 
and insects ; they are hard to spray ; the api)les are more difficult to pick 
and are of poorer color and quality. Probably the most serious result is 
an indirect efi^ect of the death of the lower liiubs. Trees are left until the 
large lower limbs die for want of light. These are then removed and 
the wounds are too large to heal. Tn time they cause the trunk to 
deca\-. (See Fig. 62.) 




Fig. 60. — A poor system of pruning. The best bearing 
zvood removed and the trees almost ruined rather tlian 
cut out half of them. {Compare ivith Fig. 61.) 



304 



Bulletin 226. 




An Apple Orchard Survfa* of Wayne County. New York. 305 



Top-grafting or pruning every other row. — Some men have top-grafted 
half of the trees a few years before cutting them out. Alost of those 
who have tried this would not do so again. It is some expense to do 
the grafting, and by the time the grafts are ready to bear well it is about 
time to cut the trees down. Some have cut back the tops of the trees 
to be removed, leaving the center part to bear a few years before remov- 
ing the tree. This seems to have paid in some cases, but has not always 
been satisfactory. Too much must not be expected of any such devices, 
for they do not relieve the 
condition under ground. The 
roots interfere before the tops 
do. When the tops begin to 
interfere it is high time to 
remove half the trees. 

Hozi' to thin. — If the trees 
are planted in squares the best 
way to thin is to cut out every 
other tree in each row. This 
is done by cutting out every 
other row diagonally. It 
leaves the trees in squares 
cornerwise of the field. (See 
Fig. 63.) 

It is interesting to note 
what removing half the trees 
would mean. Persons some- 
times think that doing so in 
an orchard that is 25 x 2^ 
feet would leave the remainder 
50 X 50 feet. As a matter of 
fact they would be in squares 
of 35.3 X 35.3 feet, when viewed from the corners of the field ; if 30 x 30 
feet, and half removed, the remainder would stand 42.4 x 42.4 feet; if 
33 x 33 feet, and half removed, they would be 46.7 x 46.7 feet. None of 
these distances is too great for large, mature trees. If 35 x 35 feet, and 
half removed, they would be 49.5 x 49.5 feet. Large Baldwin trees can 
make good use of this much room. 

One of the problems to be met in thinning is that, if every other tree is 
removed regularly, there will be some places where the tree to be cut out 




Fig. 62.— The large lozvcr branches die because 
the frees are too close. The limbs are then 
removed, and the ne.vf stage is a decayed 
trunk. Notice the holes in the second tree 
on the left. 



3o6 



BULLRTIX 226. 



is better than the one to be left : or it may occur that the one which should 
be left is niissing-. Will it pay to leave a tree that would otherwise be 
removed if it comes next to a vacant place? This question must be 





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— Llgen d — 

-^iAf- Tree6 Removed 
_^t-^ Tree3 Left Standing 
m Tre-es Missing 



Imc. (i,v— />/i;.!,'/-</;;.' sli,>:,'iui; luilf iJic irrrs rrni<-:\-,l. ilic d^'llcil lines sliow thai 
the ti'i'i's miiaiiiiir^ arr in S:]nor,-s riirnrr\K'is<- of t!ic tiehl. 

answered as each case arises, but it is well to remember that if the tree 
is left it will damai;'e one side of three- other trees. 

P)efore cuttin,Q' otit the trees it will pa\- to make a mai> of the orchard 
and locate the vacant s]:)aces and ])oor trees, and so determine which wav 
of cuttint;' will include the g'reatest number o{ these. In Fic^'. 63 the rows 



Ax Apple Orchapd Sl'r\i:v oi' W'.wxi': Corxi\-. Xi':w ^'ork. 307 

bb, dd, ff, etc., or the rows cc. cc, gg. etc., may be removed. Sometimes 
it will make a difference of several trees which is done. Suppose that 
the trees marked /// are poor trees or missing; then by removing- rows 
bb, dd, etc., five of these will be included. If the other set of rows are 
removed only two will be included, a gain of three trees by the former 
method — enough to much more than pay for the trouble of making 
the map. 

It recpiires courage to go into a fine apple (orchard, one that has lieen 
watched over for years, and cut out good, healthy trees. But in many 
orchards the time has come when a choice must be made between two 
poor trees or one good one. If one has definitely made up his mind that 
his trees are crowding, perhaps the best way to thin them is to do as the 
owner of a fine Baldwin orchard of twenty acres did. He decided which 
rows should be removed. Then, to be sure that he would not repent and 
have some of the trees left, he went away on a two weeks' visit while 
the bovs did the work. 



CHAPTER VI IT. 

A<iE UF THK ( )|<C11AK1)S. 

Date of plaiiliiig. — Few of the oM orchards arc now owned by the men 
who set them, cji" even hy the descendants oi these men. !t is, therefore, 
chfficult to yet the exact aL;e in all cases, InU the reports are probably 
accurate enoni;'h to i^'ive reliable conclusions. 

Most of the trees set ])efore 1850 were for the purpose of supplying 
the faniih' wants. Al)out this time j^rowers began to set commercial 
orchartls. The majority were set between i860 and 1875. The number 
planted decreased till i8(;5. Since then there has been a gradual increase. 
(See table 25.) 

The young orchards are nearly all in the north part of the county. 
\'ery few trees have been set in the south part during the last twenty-five 
\ears. ( Some discussion of the reason for this will be found on page 259.) 

Tablk 25. 

Xuiiibcr of iicrcs pkiiiU'il diiriii!^ cucli fire-year period. The table iiieliidcs only 
those (ireha)-ds that are still liriiii^. Some of the earlier flaiili)ii^s hai'e disaf^- 
p eared. 



DATE OF PLANTIXG. 



Bffore 1S40 

1840-49 (10 years) . 

1850-54 

1855-59 

1860-64 

1865-69 

1870-74 

1875-79 

1880-84 

1885-89 

1890-94 

1895-190,5 (8 years) 



No. of orchards. 



33 
42 

45 
153 
91 
67 
43 
22 
12 
19 
47 



No. of acres. 



73 
167 

298;i 
810X 
717 
450 

38oji 
194 

71 H 

54 
377 



Per cent. 



2 

4'4 

4'A 



19 



l! 
10 



yield at different ag^es.— The fact that apples are the chief source of 
income for so many farmers, and that practically every one considers 
them to be a paying crop, would seem to raise the (|uestion of whv more 
orch.ards are not planted. The great deterrent to such planting is the 
long time that one must wait for returns. With the usual treatment of 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 309 

Baldwin and Greening trees they do not begin to be profitable for nearly 
twenty years. A much less profitable crop that gives returns the first 
year can therefore compete with apples. 

If well cared for, the trees will usually pay sooner. But the very fact 
that it is so long before a revenue is secured causes the owner to neglect 
the trees, so that the normal period is increased. The young orchard 
usually takes its place as a field in the crop rotation, and is therefore 
in sod or small grain half the time. One frequently sees young orchards 
in wheat-fields or hay-fields. "' The short growth, knotty bodies and 
)ello\v leaves tell the story of shallow roots, dry soil, borers, and all the 
ills which everv farmer who follows such methods deserves to have 




Fig. 64. — Diagram sho-a'iiig the yicUl in Inislicis al different ages. 

fastened to his trees.'"* Grain and hay should never be grown in a young 
orchard. The first thing to grow is an apple-tree. Tilled crops are the 
only ones that can be grown without damaging the trees and lengthening 
the period before they are ready to bear. (See Figs. 41, 42 and 43.) 

i\Iany of the orchards now being set are composed of Ben Davis, 
Hubbardston, Duchess and other early-bearing varieties, but Baldwin and 
Greening still hold a place. 

*Cornell Bulletiti 72. 



3IO BULLKTIX 226. 

It is a loiiQ- time to wait for iJaUlwins and (Ireenings to liegin to bear, 
but tlic\- make up f(»r this delay by eontinuiiii;' to be profitable for many 
years. The life of an apple-tree has commonly been spoken of as about 
forty to hfty years, 1)ut the maximum yield in Wayne county is not 
reached till fort_\-f()ur years from the lime oi plantint;'. (See table 2() 
and h'it.;-. 04. ) After this there is a i^radual decrease. Several orchards 

set before 1S20 are 
still profitable. With 
the better care that 
trees are now receiv- 
ing', their as^e of max- 
imum yield will 
d( )ubtless lie increased. 
It is probable that the 
returns for c^'ood 
Ircatnient will be even 
more marke«l in pro- 
loiio-ino- (Ik- life of the 
orchard than in in- 
ci"easinj4' ihe annual 
_\ield. ( See Vv^. (y^. ) 
Tliere are \-ery few 
45-year-old trees that 
liave not seen some 
ver\- rong'h treatment. 
'rhe\- have tj'one a 
number of years with- 
out any fertilization 
or tillag"e. The canker- 
worm has feasted on 
them ; cattle have 
damaged them. Thev 
have gone years without ])runing, or, worse, have had large limbs cut 
ofif in such a wa\' that the wounds can not heal. Some orchards of 
this age are composed of sound, thrifty trees that give promise of an 
increased yield for some years to come. 

irm it pay to plant yoiiiii!; orchards? — From the ages at which the 
vields l)egin to decrease it would seem that in ab(nit twentv vears a large 




Imi;, 65. — Kincty-six years old and slill yoiiiiii. This 
orchard conUiiiis about i if, of ihc ori}^iiial _'7o Irccs 
scl '.)6 years (/.c. Ordiard of J. .1. Kitck, }\'iicL-:'ilh\ 
Orh'aits coinitv- 



An Ai'i'LK OkcnAi^n SrK\i:\- oi- W'.wxr: Covsry, Xi:\v York. 311 

part of the present orchards would cease to be profitable. It must be 
remembered that table 26 includes only those orchards that have sur\ivecl. 
Many orchards set sixty-five years ago have entirely disappeared. 



T.XBLE 26. 
Age and yield per acre in bushels. 



1900. 



DATE OF PLANTING. 



Before 1840. 

I840-4Q 

1850-54 

f 855-59 

1 860-64 

1865-69 

1870-74 

1875-79- • ■ 
1880-84.. ■• 

1885-89 

1890-95 



No. 
orchards. 



4 

I 

12 

9 
54 
41 
26 



No. acres. 


Yield. 


No. 
orchards 


10 


-'1 5 


7 


10 


200 


6 


43 


245 


13 


^3 


368 


17 


278.V 


347 


63 


366 


293 


44 


-238 


219 


34 


81 a 


255 


15 


67 


164 


9 


5 


80 


I 


18 


50 


4 



1901. 



No. acres. 



24 '< 

37 

47 

84^4 
360 '2 
465 
278'. 

TOI 
69 

5 
14 



Yield. 



83 
38 

34 
67 

57 
55 
61 
64 
6 

36 



Table 26 — Concluded. 



DATE OF 
PLANTING 



Before 1840 
1840-49. . . 
1850-54. .. . 

1855-59- ■-• 
1860-64. . . . 
1865-69. ... 
1870-74. ... 
1875-79. •-- 
1880-84. ... 
1885-89.... 
1890-95 



No. 
orchards 



14 

17 

38 

34 

H5 

74 

51, 

25 

9 

6 

10 



1902. 



No. 
acres. 



60 

93' 

154 

255' 

612' 

652 

:;8o' 

138; 

120 

26 

21' 







1903. 




Four-Year 

A\-ERAGE. 


Yield. 

175 
186 


No. 
orchards.' 

I 
3 


No. 
acres. 


Yield. 


Aver- 
age 
age. 


Yield. 


I 'A 
18 


210 
267 


64 

59 


r7i 
173 


220 
281 
232 


13 
12 

54 


4SH 

l6l'/2 

284/2 


224 
312 
236 


49 
44 
39 


181 

257 
218 


212 


2S 


274H 


238 


34 


200 




23 


211/2 


261 


29 


191 


204 


II 


45?^ 


286 


24 


202 


133 


7 


47H 


155 


^9 


115 


42 


I 


10 


140 


14 


66 


29 


I 


10 


100 


9 


54 



The tabulation for eacli division of the county gives the maximum yield at this 
same age — 44 years. 



312 Bulletin 226. 

It is difficult to tell just how much effect the better care will have in pro- 
longing the life of the trees, but it is quite certain that the well-cared-for 
orchards will continue to pay much longer than the average. But over 
half the firchards are not well cared for. and it is perfectly reasonable to 
suppose that many of these neglected ones will be gone in twenty years. 
The advisability of planting more orchards to take the place of these old 
ones is therefore worth considering. More immediate profit would come 
from the rejuvenation of the old orchard. 



CHAPTER IX. 

Soils and Soil Problems. 

Topography. 

Topographical regions. — Wayne county is divided into two distinct 
topographical regions: a very hilly or drunilin region, and a region of 
gently rolling land : l)ut each of these regions has a subdivision, so that 
we have four divisions (see Fig. 66) : 

(i) A drumlin area. 

(2) A region where 
the drumlins were 
once wholly or par- 
tially submerged. 

(3) A gently roliing 
glaciated area. 

(4) An area of roll- 
ing' land that was 
formerly the old lake 
bed. 

T h c c 1 e V a t i o n s 
above sea level varv 
from 246 feet, the 
level of the lake, to 
670 feet, the top of 
the highest hill. 
During the glacial period the lake level was about 440 feet above sea level, 
or about the height of the " ridge '". This ridge was a sand-bar or lake 
shore line. The present sand-bar running across Sodus Bay prol)ably 
appears somewhat as the ridge appeared during this period. (See Fig. 
141.) This ridge is more or less continuous from Sodus P)ay to Buffalo. 
It is a gravel formation ten to thirty feet high and about four rods wide 
on top. It makes a natural roadway and has always been used for that 
purpose. The Rochester and Sodus Bay trolley line, built on this nature- 
graded roadbed, has furnished a very important supplement to the rail- 
roads in marketing the fruit of the northern part of the county. 

During the glacial period the entire county was covered with a thick 
mass of ice. This ice was graduallv moved southward, and carried with it 




Fig. 66. — Topografhical regions. J. Dnnnlin area. II. 
Region 7cliere tiie dntnilins zvere (Uiee wholly or 
partially covered by the lake. III. (iently roliiiig 
glaciated area. 11'. Old lake bed. 



313 



314 



Bulletin 226. 



the stony material that now makes uj) the soil of the south part of the 
county. This material was deposited in the long hills, or drumlins, and in 
the sheet of stony material that occurs between them. The depth of this 
covering of glacial drift varies from a few feet to about one hundred and 
seventy-five feet. In many places lietween the hills the bed-rock is very 
close to the surface, what soil there is having been largely brought from 
the hills by the rains. In some places the bed-rock is still uncovered. 
Many of the small streams that drain the area run on this rock. In order 
to drain some of the lower land, the rock must be blasted out in order 
to deepen the streams. 

77/ 1' dm III /ill area. — About two-thirds of the county is covered with a 
succession (if the long north and south hills or drumlins. (See page 364.) 





m 


^ 








F 




i 


^* 


' 





Fig. 07. — Nrar Sodiis Hay- -'l sandy soil. Tins :cas formerly ihc old lake bed. 
The hills in llie foreiiround lurve been caused by siihseqitenf erosion. 

These hills have a slightly northwest and southeast direction. They are 
from one-fourth of a nnle to three miles loui;' — usuallv a little over a 
mile — and are about one-fonrth as wide as long. Their tops arc from 
450 to ()yo feet above sea level, and rise from 75 to 175 feet above the 
valleys. Idiese heights for such narrow hills give very steep east and 
west slopes. The north and south slopes occu])\- comparatively little of 
the area. The former are al)rui)t, the latter more ,G:entle. The greater 
part of the elevated land, therefore, consists of verv steep east and west 
slo])es. The orchards are situated on these slo|)es and on some of the 
rolling land of lower levels. The soil t\])e of the hills and the higher 
])art of the lower land is the Miami ston\- l(\am. (Sec pa.q'e 31*^).) 

The dniiuliu area that icas once [^a'ily subii!er_<:;ed. — In the northeast 
part of the county, cast of Sodus P>ay, there is a considerable area where 



An Applk Orchard Slrnkv of Waynic County. Nkw ^'ork, 315 

the drumlins were once islands or were covered by the lake a I the same 
time when the ridge was formed. (See Fig. 67.) The sediment depos- 
ited in the qniet water that filled these lower places formed the Miami 
silt loam (see page 317), which has proved to be an excellent apple soil. 
The higher-lying land is mostl_\- the Miami ston_\- loam and Alton st<Mi\- 
loam. Areas of Miami fine sand also occnr. 

Tl\e voitly rolling, glaciated area. — Between the ridge and the drnm- 
lins of Marion and Walworth townships the soil was mostly removed by 
the glaciers. In many places the rock is so near the snrface as to mter- 
ferc with the growth of api)les. The soil is a good apple soil where deep 
enough and where there is an outlet for the water. 

Area of rolling land thai was once the lake bed. — Xorth of the ridge 
the land was once the old lake bed. The soil is formed from sedimentary 
ileposits in the old lake and to some extent from deposits l)y the glaciers. 
It is now a gentlv rolling plain with a quite variable soil. (See Fig. 
144.) Tn man}- places the drainage is poor, but there are many desir- 
able sites for orchards. The soil types used for apples are the Alton 
stony loam, Miami silt loam and Miami fine sand." 

Soil.^. 

The soil types. — The chief a])ple soils of the county are the Miami 
ston\" loam, the Miami silt loam and the .Vlton stony loam. A])ples are 
also grown on the Miami fine sand, the ( )ntario gravell\- loam and on a 
])hase of the Alton stony loam that has the bed-rock too near the surface. f 



"For a further discussion of the topography, ijeology and nrisin of soils, see 
Part II of this report. 

tFor a more extended thscussion of ^oils, see the report of ".A .Soil .Surve\' of the 
I.\(ins Area," a reprint from the ' I'ield Oi)erations of the Bureau of Soils, 190J." 
TJTis gi\-es a discussion of the soils and a soil map of all the county except the west 
tier of townships. It is sent free to all who apply to the Secretary of Agriculture, 
Washington, D. C. 

This report was not puldished at the time the orchard survey was made, so that 
the soil classification was independent of the Bureau of Soils, though following the 
same methods. More sulidivisions were made in the orchard work, with the idea 
of combining, if the differences were found to he insufficient to warrant the separa- 
tion. The Miami stony loam, Alton stony loam and Miami fine sand were each 
divided into two subtypes. These divisions seem to lie entirely unnecessary. One 
subdivision of the Alton stony loam, in which the bed-rock is so near the surface as 
materially to affect the production of apples, is retained as a distinct type. The 
Ontario gravelly loam was mapped by the Bureau of Soils with the Miami stony 
loam and Alton stony loam. This is kept as a distinct type. The smallness of the 



,^i6 Bulletin 226. 

TJic Miami stony loam is tlic stonx- soil thai covers the drumhns and 
most of the rolhng' land between these hills. It is a light brown loam, 
eight to ten inches deep, containing five to fort)- per cent of stone and 
gravel. Tlie stones are nsnally small and well rtnnided. The subsoil 
is a brownish-yellow, stony loanL The priiijortion of stone and gravel 
usually increases at greater depths, but the reverse is sometimes true. 
The gravel is sometimes cemented together so as to form a gravel hard- 
pan. This occasionally occurs near enough to the surface to interfere 
with the growth of apfde-trees. Table 2~ gives a summary of the average 
mechanical analyses of four samples of this soil. 

Taulk 27. 

Mcchanicdl muilysi's nf l!ic fine carlli of Miami stony loani. .liwragc of four 

s<in)pli-s, //;/•!■<' of ,-i.7;/(7; -iOrrc tnkcii from the repoit of tlic Ihircaii of Soils. 

SoiL Subsoil. 

Per cent. Per cent. 

Organic matter i .96 i . 13 

Fine gravel and coarse sand (2 — 0.5 nnn ) 6. 7- 

Medium, line and very fnu- sand (0.5 — 0.05 mm ) 44. 46. 

Silt ( f) . 05 — o . 005 mm ) ,^0 • 34 ■ 

Clay (0.005 — o. 0001 nun) 11. 13. 

T/ic .11 1 on stony loam. — This tvpe of soil occurs north of the drumlin 
area. The surface soil, to a depth of seven to ten inches, consists of 
l)rown sandy or silty loauL The subsoil is a vellowdsh-brown sandy or 
silt} loanu The t\])e contains ten to fifty per cent of stone, which gen- 
erally consists of more angular fragments than those in the Miami stony 
loam. It also contains more tine sand or silt than that type. South of 
the ridge there are consideralile areas of it that contain limestone frag- 
ments. Table 28 gives the averages of three analyses of this type. 

Table 28. 

.\Ii\luuiii\il innilyses of llw tine earth of tlie .llton stony loam. .Iverai^e of tliree 

analyses made by the Pnrean of .S'oils. 

Soil. Subsuil. 

Per cent. Per cent. 

Organic matter 3.89 .61 

Fine ,gra\rl and coarse sand (2 — 0.5 mm) 5. 4. 

Medium, line and \ery line sand (0.5 — fj.o5nmi) S-- 4'>- 

Silt ( 0.05 - 0.005 mm) 30. 31 . 

Clay (0.005 — o. 0001 mm) 13. 19. 

individual are.as wnuld make it dillicnlt, if nnt inii)()ssil)le, to map it separately by 
the r.ureau of Soils method The Miami silt loam (called the I'.lmir.a silt loam in 
tin- ]'.ure;iu nf .Soils repdrt, l)nt since changed to Miami silt loam) corresponds 
exactly with > 'ue of the classifications made hy the writer. Tn general the soil types 
and the mechanical analyses agree remarkably well for results secured from inde- 
l)endent work. 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, Xi:w York. 317 

South of the ridge, in the west part of the county, there are considerable 
areas of the Ahon stony loam, where the soil rests on limestone rock 
that is so near the surface as to interfere with the growth of apples. The 
soil is too shallow to admit of good root-growth or to allow good 
drainage. 

TJic Miami silt loam. — This is a brown or yellowish-brown silt loam, 
eight or ten inches deei), underlaid by brownish-yellow or yellow silty 
loam. This type occurs on the rolling land near the lake and around 
Sodus Bay. (See table 29.) 

Table 29. 

Mcrlianical analyses of .Miami silt loam, .-li'd-aiic of four sainplcs, three of z^'liieh 

-a<ere aiialy::ed by the Bureau of .Soils. 

Soil. Subsoil. 

Percent. Per cent. 

Organic matter i 44 ■ .3- 

Fine gravel and coarse sand {2 — 0.5 mm ) r . i . 

Medium, fine and very fine sand (0.5 — 0.05 mm ) 2J. 18. 

Silt Co. 05 — 0.005 mm) 64. 66. 

Clay (0.005 — 0. 0001 mm) 13 ■ i4- 

Miami Hue sand. — This type is a light brown sandy loam, eight or ten 
inches deep, underlain by lig"ht yellow sand, usually free from stones. 
Its chief occurence is north of the ridge. (See table 30.) 

T.VBLE 30. 

.Meehaiiieal. analyses of the Miami fine sand. A-eera(^e of three analyses- )nade by 

the Bureau of .Soils. 

Soil. Subsoil. 

Per cent. Per cent. 

Organic matter ^15 o ■ 3"^ 

Fine gravel and coarse sand (2 — 0.5 mm) 4. 3- 

Medium, fine and very fine sand (0.5 — 0.05 mm ) 7S. 85. 

Silt (0.05 — 0.005mm) 14- 9- 

Clay (0.005 — o.oooi mm ) 3- -■ 

Ontario graz'elly loam. — This is a brown gravel underlain by a light 
brown gravel or gravelly loam. The predominating characteristic is the 
gravel. Most of the gravel is less than one inch in tliameter. It occtu's 
in small deposits in the Miami stony loam and is the common type along 
the ridge. It is a verv open soil — too well drained. Along the ridge 
it is nearly all planted to apples. The deposits of gravel that occur in 
the drumlins are frequently used on the public roads. (See Fig. 69.) 

Average yield on the different soil types. — Table 31 shows the average 
yields on the six different types of soil. The number of orchards on the 
last three types is not large enough to give positive results. The table 



3i8 



Bulletin 226. 



shows definitely that the IMiaini stony loam averages better than the Alton 
stony loam and that the soil with the iK'd-ruck near the surface is by far 
the poorest of all. J believe that the four-year average shows the rela- 
tive nierits of the soils quite accuratel}', exee|)t that the average for the 
()ntari() gravellx' loam seems to be a little too high. It is certain, how- 
ever, that this t}]ie usually gives a good \ield. All previous discussions 
of a]iple soils, so far as I have been able to determine, would consider 
this a very poor apple soil. 

Tari.k ,^i. 
Average yichi in hitslicls ,>ii diffcrciil soil lyf^rs. Trees set before iSSo. 



SOIL TVPE. 



Miami stony loani 

Alton stony loam 

Alton stony loam (Wed 

near surface) 

Miami silt loam 

Ontario gravelly loam . . 
Miami fine sandy loam. . 





1900. 






'1901. 




No. 




' Average 


No. 




Average 


orchards. 




j yield. 


orchards. 


834.'4' 


yield. 


116 


,^4-"-' 


287 


57 


-24 


T82 


^55 


_'0 


1 44'^ 


3.^ 


8 


35 


218 


5 


26 


7 


/ 


1-5 


379 


6 


1 15 


99 


-' 


17 


474 


/ 


35 '2 


73 


5 


41 


100 


6 


51 


93 



Tacle 31 — Coiielitded. 



SOIL TVPE 



Miami stony loam 

Alton stony loam 

Alton stony loam (hei 
rock' near surface) ,. 

Miami silt loam 

Ontario i;ravelly loam. . 
Miami fine sandy loam . 



No. 
orchards 



-7- 
43 

I J 
8 

12 
8 



1902. 



i4i0-'4 
35'"^ 

66 
129 
63'-' 
63 



Average 
vield. 



-'34 
-■5 

151 
260 

-295 

353 



No. 
jrchards 



13-2 
19 



1903. 



788,34 
185 

-29 • 2 

44 

9 

172 



Average 
yield. 



283 
229 

^37 
214 
278 
220 



Four- 
year 



-'I5 
'83 

153 
238 
280 
192 



Siiinitiarx of Ihc soil fact<^r In af>p!c-pyodiictioii. — While the kind of 
soil is important, in this locality, it is evidently not the most important 
factor in ai)ple-production and is not as important as the kind of treatment 
that the soil receives. The kind of care required varies with the soil. The 
Miami sill loam will doubtless j)roduce a good crop with less manure 



An Apple Orchard Strvrv ok \\'.\vxf. County. Ni-:\v Y 



319 



. than is required on an>- of the other types. The Miami stony loam is 
next strongest. The other t}i)es require larger applications of manure, 
but give good results when so treated. These latter areniore ojien and 
are more in need of humus. The soil with the ])ed-rock near the surface 
is entirely unsuited to apples. For the l)est production of ap])les, there 
should be at least six feet of well-drained soil in every part of the orchard. 

TJic condition of the' natural di-aina;^c. — In selecting a Sdil for an 
orchard, more important than chemical or physical composition is the 




l''i<".. 58. — 111 llic criilcr of a j^.t-i/it.' oycJiard lliat is on a liiH. Sci'cral acrrs Iiarr 
been gradually killed and nuiuy more damaged by ground lealer. This land has 
gro'cn uf to zoeeds and gi'i'es no ineome. Il eould easily be drained. 

([uestion of drainage. Xo well-drained soils were found in the count}' 
that were not producing gt)0(l crops of ai)])les when ])ropcrl\- cared tor. 

The maiorit\- of the orchards are on fairly well drained land. .V large 
number woidd be benefited 1)_\' underdrainage, but in some cases the bene- 
fit would not be great enough to pay. Some orchards have been set on 
such wet land that they have entirely failed ; others have one corner 
extending down into a low place where drainage is needed: others are 
divided by small " draws " that need underdrains. Where the orchards 
are on steep hillsides it might seem as if underdrainage would be 
unnecessary, but there arc man\ places where the seepage water calls for 
drains. In other places the long slopes accmnulate such a large volume 



7,20 



Bulletin 226. 




of surface water that drains are needed. Kig. 68 shows a 35-acre orchard, 
in the center of which are several acres that have hcen drowned out. This 
orchard is on a Jiigh hill and has a fair slojie, hut it needs drainage. There 
is usually a strij) of poorly drained land on each side of the "ridge". 
Kettle-holes occur occasionally in the north part of the county. In a few 
orchards near tlic lake shore there are successions of parallel waves of land, 
making a few r(jds of good soil f(jl]owed hy some that needs drainage. 

In the northeast 
l)art of the county 
several orchards were 
rxamined the foliage 
I if which was of a red- 
dish hue when viewed 
from a distance. 
Some of the leaves 
were (|uite red in the 
latter part of August. 
This seemed to he 
due to the lack of 
tl rain age. It was 
characteristic of foli- 
age in und rained 
places. Several farm- 
ers attrihutcd this to 
a ■' new insect " that 
had "stung the 
leaves "". 

'Idle * )ntario grav- 
ell\ loam and the 
Miami tine sand drain 
too easilv — that is. 
they do not retain enough water. ( )n such soils tillage is particularly 
l)rotitahle. A cowr-croj) or harnxard manure is a necessity. They add 
humus and increase the water-holding cai^acity of the soil. Tillage and 
humus will make an}- of these soils good for apples. (See hig. 6q. ) 

Losses caused /'\' lack of drainafj^c. — Of the 1.773 ^-4 acres of orchard 
land iu Walworth, only 19^2 acres have anv kind of iniderdrainage. Most 
of these have only a stone drain or two in a particularly wet place. A 



t : 



Fig. 69. — ./;/ rxcaT'ation slin-i^'liif:, stnitificd Onhtrit 
iiniiTlJx Inaiii. Too iit// drained! 



An Apple Orchard Survkv of Wayne County, New York. 321 

few have tile drains. Fifty-four orchards, aggregating 232 acres, arc 
reported as in need of drainage. This means that, in the opinion of the 
inspector, some tile drainage would pay. The average yield of these 54 




Fig. 70. — /I tu',:lvc-ac'rc DicliaiJ. tiijo acres c/ icliich arc- dciul. and ii^u aci'd 
damaged by lack of drainage. 




•^»*<^^^iS«^-, 




Fig. 71. — The trees are all daraaged by iiisiMcieitl drainage. The groiver continues 
to plant young trees and tltcsc arc continually droivncd out. It zvould pay better 
to " plant " tile drains. 



-722 



r'.ri.ijyrix 22(). 



orchards in kjoj was J03 Inislids, 4J bushels l)el<Av Ihc average of the 
other orchards in this town. ( )f the i,g87'j acres inspected in tlie 
remainder of the countw 317 acres liave some underdrains, but 831 acres 
need drainage in whole or in part. 

iV'rhajis live to eight ])er cent of the orchards of the county need under- 
drainage throughout. About thirty per cent need drainage in j)art. The 
"rcat loss throuuii ncL^lect of drainaux- is not in the destruction or damage 



i 



«i 4 



f-.y^Xi* 












^ 




[•'ic /J. — . / "iJni:<.'" HI a I jO-acrc orchiirtl 'wUcic the trees arc Iwiiii^ gnuliinlly 
(lro7\.'iicd out. I'hc tiw in tlic fdrciintiuu! is (/_v/;;.i,' /';// is Iwariiii^ a lart^c cnij' 
of little (it<l^les iiiid /(Tc leaz'es. Tlie oioier considers it a t>!iciioiiiciial tree, biil 
il icill probably iiol bear many more erofs. 

of the few entire orchardN. but in the loss from the few small wet ])laces 
in hundreds of orchards; for there are hundreds of (Orchards that have 
from one to lifteen \)vv cent of the trees drowned out or badly damaged. 
There is a low place, a " draw " (see i'^ig. z^). or a kettle-hole, or a place 
where the water sccjjs out, and a few trees are killed or damaged. These 
\acaut ])laces are iui most cases waste land. If tlu'N' were occujiied by 
trees it would not add materiall\- to the expense of caring feir the orchard. 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 323 



but would add very substantially to tbe income. Figs. 68, 70 and 71 
show such areas of waste land, due to lack of drainage. Many of the 
trees that are not killed are badly damaged. In such places a few tile 
or a good stone drain would pay many times over. x\ manufacturer 
would not long allow 
any such loss. Why 
should a farmer give 
less attention to 
losses in his business ? 
Lack of drainage 
ma\' not be apparent 
while the trees are 
}oung. It is a grow- 
ing evil, for as the 
trees get- larger and 
the roots extend 
deeper, they get into 
poorly drained and 
poorly aerated soil. 




Fig. /;i. — /;; flw saiiir orchard as Fii^. 6S. slhii^'nn^ the 
border lino bcticccii the dead and dyiiiij; trees. The 
trees are -jS years old. Their si.'je can he seen by eoni- 
paring ivith the small boy. 'The gnarly h.orizontal 
spread of the limbs is eliaraeteristie of trees that are 
in the most poorly drained plaees. 




Fig. 74. — This orclun\l is ,ir,lnian:y fan-iy \K'rii draniea "m in me :ee: seasmis 
it suffers. The pieture xcas taken Get. rn. i()o.j. At this dale the leaves 
had all fallen, because of the ivcf soil. The huires had been falling badly 
for tivo ino>itIis. 



324 Bulletin 226. 

The trees ma\' do very well till the}- are abotit old enough to bear, then 
some wet season they will be damaged or even killed. 

Those who propose to set new orehards should eonsider the question 
well before starting sueh an expensive and long-eontinued enterprise 
on soil that is not well drained naturalK nr artilieiall\ . it is not enough 
that the soil will raise an ordinary farm crop. The roots of such a cro]) 
do not go as dee]) as do ap]ile-roots. l'\u'thermore. if a corn crop is lost 
or damaged h\- water, it does not prevent raising a good crop next year. 
\\ hen an apple orchard is damaged one can not start over the next spring 
as if notliing had happened. Tlic corn is an annual, a one-year invest- 
ment ; the apple, a perennial, a long-time investment. 



CHAPTER X. 

Elevations and FLxposures. 

Sites. — The sites are classified as elevated, or well up on the hills; 

moderately elevated ; slightly elevated, and low. Table ^2 shows the 

areas of each division. 

Table 32. 

Sitrs of orchards. I'ahlc iiiclitdr.'i all a:.ics of trees. 



Walworth. 



Kemaindek okCo. Entire County. 



No. 
orchards. 



Elevated 158 

Moderately and slightly elevated, j 133 
Low 1 147 



790 'z 
495' 2 
487/4 



No. or- 
chards. 



No. 
orcliards. 



34 1 359 
91 I 1488 
10 I i40>2 



192 
224 
157 



1 1 49 .''2 

1983 yi 
627H 



Relation of the sites to yields. — The yields do not indicate any par- 
ticular advantage for any of the divisions. The four-year average in 
Walworth on elevated sites was 22/ bushels ; moderately and slightly 
elevated, 224 bushels; low, 213 bushels. For the remainder of the county 




Fig. 75. — All orchard on ihc cast side uj a druinlin. 

the difterence.s are about the same but are in the reverse order. Evidently 
the site is not a verv important factor. I he best site is (loul)tless one 
that is sufficiently elevated to give good opportunity for air and water- 
drainage, but not so high as to be sharj)ly exposed to wind. 

Hie aspects or e.vposiire. — The maiorit_\- of the orchards in the drumlin 
area' are on east or west slo])es occup\ing" the sides of the drumlins (see 
Fig-. 75 and pag'e 3^14). There are. however, many orchards on the rolling- 
land of lower levels, and in the north part of the county, where there are 



3^6 Bulletin 226. 

no drunilins, the land is rolling. Table ^}, shows the predominance of 
east and west slopes in Walworth. 

Table t>t,. 
Aspect. 

Walworth. 
Exposure. • No. orchards. Acres. 

N 2'^ 80 

N, E _'7 88 

E 84 313K 

S- E 19 74lA 

S j6 gi'^ 

S. W 20 74 

W 71 268 

N. W 15 61 

Level 45 i^9]4 

Rolling* 106 593 

*]Most of tliosc classed as rolling arc a c miliinaliini of cast ami west slupcs. The 
south part of the county has equally marked east and west slopes. The north i)art is 
rolling. 

The effect of aspect 011 yields. — The easterly slopes in Walworth gave 
a larger }ield each of the past fotir \ears than have the westerly slopes. 
The difference in 1902 was 23 bushels per acre in favor of the 
easterl) slopes. In each of the other years the difference was greater. 
The north ])art of the count}' does not show this marked uniform differ- 
ence. The differences are greater than one would expect. In each of the 
four years the northeast slopes have exceeded the northwest, the east have 
exceeded the west ; the onl_\- exceptions are that in two cases the south- 
east have failed to exceed the southwest. The f(^ur-vear average in 
Walworth was 43 bushels in favor of easterly slopes. 

It seems safe to C(mchide that the easterly slopes have marked advan- 
tages over the westerlv. This is due to the ]>rotection from the strc^ng 
west winds which do considerable damage at times. In the first part of 
Jtme, i';o3, the lea\'es of the west rows in many orchards were badly 
injured b\- winds. In inan\" cases the foliage loi^ked brown froiu the 
distance. riie outi'r ])art of luost leaves was damaged and many entire 
leax'es wi'fe killed. The effects were still apparent in Jtilw These strong 
west winds also catisc more loss from windfalls on the west sides of the 
hills. The orchards on the level exposures gi\-e the least yields of all. 
a difference that is probabl}' due to poorer drainage. 



CHAPTER XI. 

A Comparison of Rknti:d ( )rciiakds with those Manac.ed by the 

Owner. 

Census of rented oreliards. — Between twenty and twenty-tive per cent 
of the area clevoted to api)les is rented. (See table 34.) The usual 
method of renting an orchard is the share system, 'idie renter takes entire 
charge of the orchard and dehvers a certain share of the crop^ — usuah}- 
half — to the owner. A cash rental is not uncommon, hut is given in a 
much smaller number of cases. Many of the renters do not remain on 
one farm longer than one or two years. 



Table 34. 
Area of rented orchards and of those nut rented. Trees set before iSSo. 



Walwokth. 


Re.mainder of County. Entire Countv. 


PROPRIETOR. 

No. or- 
chards. 


Acres. 

i.o8o?4 
259/^ 


Per 

cent. 


No. or- 
chards. 


Acres. 


Per No. or- 
cein, chards. 


Acres. 

2.531^ 
747 


Per 

cent. 


Owner 243 


81 85 
IQ ' ^7 


1.451 
487/. 


75 ' 328 
25 , lOI 


77 


Renter 64 


23 






' 







Effects of the rental system on the health of the orcliard. — The large 
number of rented orchards gives rise to a serious [jroblem in orchard 
management. Wdien a man rents land for the growth of field crops, there 
is not only a definite basis for the rent but there is also an unwritten law 
that has established quite definitely how he should raise these crops. 
There are no such definite customs that determine the care which a rented 
apple orchard should receive. 

The greatest obstacle in the way of good care is the fact that the returns 
for good treatment do not come immediately. Good care of field-crops 
gives an immediate efifect : good care of an apple orchard may give less 
returns the first year than it gives several years later. A renter does 
not like to plow up a pasture that is of immediate value for the benefit 
of a future apple-crop. If he mows the grass, he is not likely to leave it 
for a mulcli, unless it is not good for hay. The farm manure will bring 
him quicker returns if used on the field-crops. The greatest return which 

:i27 



,^28 HULLKTIN _'_'(). 

he £:;Cts from pruning- may l_)c- in the firc-wood procured, and some of the 
]:)runing is therefi)re done so as to o-ei the most wood with the least work. 
If lie has no cro]), lie docs ni>t see die ])rofit in spra\ing f()r the lienefit 
of a future crop that he ma\' not reap. 

All these points nrv eni])hasi7.ed when the renter is certain that he will 
not stav another vear. Their effect on the tree is ])artially indicated liy 
the average \-ields. This average for the past four years has heen 174 
I)ushels for the rented orchards and 210 hushels for those not rented. 
(See table 35.) 

Taiili- .^5. 
)'ii-Uls of rculcd nn-Iuirds cniil^arc:! :e///( ihr'sc iiol rented. Trees set before iSSo. 

Walwouth. Remainder of County. Entike County. 



^-T Acres. ^aVT ^^ t' Acres. a^I ' ^o- or- I .,„es. ragl 

chards. ^,.|| ., chards ! y.-,^, chards. i ^.-^^^ 

1900. 

<^\viuT I 94 387 "4 .^.^-' I ,^i 54- -47 1-5 9-^9 '4 ^83 

Renter ' 13 75'.. 305, 15 242' j ->3-' j8 318 I -^49 

I go 1 . 

Owner 118 607V 64 ' T,2 ' 567 ' 49 ' 150 II74'4 

Renter 20 113 36 23 367 '2 47 4.? 480'.' 4; 

190-'. 

Owner ig6 935^4 262 61 1004'j 217 '' 2$/ !940'4 239 

Renter | 45 j 208 'j ig6 | 28 395 'Iv 183 7^ 604 | 187 

1903. 

Owner ! 99 ' 580 '4 280 t,3 ! 575 '-'i -39 | '3- J 156 '4 I -^60 

Renter 12 | 70 1 222 i 9 I I78'2 ^15 1 21 ; -^48'2 216 



Fonr-year a\erage : 

Managed !iy nwner J to l>usliels 

Mana.^ed hy renter> 174 

The attitude of the renter is, on the whole, about as good as that of 
the owner of a rented farm. L)wners are usualK \er_\- slow to spend 
tuoney on ini])rovemeuts, or in keei)ing up a place. Hoth men often 
squeeze the farm for the last penny and let the future look out f(.)r itself. 

In a \-er\' few cases the difficult)- has been overcome b\- a contract with 
the renter, that he is to give the orchard certain detinite care. ( )ne such 
contract calls for at least Iwo sprayings and two cultivations. 



Ax Al'l'LF, OUCIIAKII SUR\"KY OF \\'aVXE CoUXTV. XkW YoRK. T,2() 

Suggestions and reflections on the rented farm. — Many renters would 
be glad to improve the orchard, but the pruning and renovation of a 
neglected orchard is an expensive undertaking. ( )ne cannot afford to 
do this unless he has a lease for several years, or unless the owner 
helps to pa}' the cost. The owner does not like to spend money for 
such work, for he feels that he will likely have a poor tenant about the 
time that the orchard gets in good shape. Some ha\e taken the 
broader view and have spent monc}' in the renovation of the orchard. 
These have almost invariably been well repaid by the increased income. 
An owner wdio takes a pride in keeping up his place and who is willing 
to spend money, if necessary, in improxing it, stimulates the renter by 
his own interest. Such a man also attracts the l)etter class of renters. 
He may occasionally have a \'erv poor one, but the a\'erage is certainly 
much above that found on the farm where the owner begrudges new 
shingles on the barn. The renter sometimes takes so much pride in 
his work that he will take good care of an orchard even if he does 
not ex])ect an immediate return. This is also a good investment for 
such a man becomes known and can therefore secure a farm more readily 
and sometimes on better terms. 

Unquestionably the luost effective way to bring the rented orchards 
up to the average is to give leases for a longer time. The conuiionest 
reason for not doing this is the fear that a shiftless tenant will secure 
the place and retain it. There is a1)un(lant reason for this fear, but if 
the renter changes e\er\- \ear or two, the chances of a Ixid one at some 
time are multiplied. Such a man ma\' do more damage in one year than 
can be overcome in many years. A fairly good man. or even one that 
is below the average, if kept from year to year will give better results 
than a rapid succession of good and l)ad tenants. 

As one travels through orchard after orchard, he becomes more and 
more impressed with tlie desirabilitv of maintaining the American 
ideal of cverv farm owned by the man who works it. But if the owner 
secures the best renter possible, gives him a lease of several vears, 
requires good care of the orchard, and then is willing to bear part of 
the expense of renovating the orchard where this is necessary, the 
renter ceases to be a menace to the apple industry. 



CHAPTER XII. 

\'arieties. 

Tlic I'arictics grown. — Nearly all the l)earing' orchards are made up of 
a mixture of Baldwin and Rhode Island Greening, with a few trees of 
other' kinds. There are more JJaldwins than of all other varieties com- 
l)inc'd. Trohably eighty to ninety per cent of all the trees are either 
Baldwin or Greening, ddic larger part of the balance are Tompkins King, 
Northern Spy, 'i'wenty Ounce and Roxburv Russet. There are some 
trees of many other \arieties Init the numbers are so small as to be 
unimportant in com])arison with the al)Ove kinds. .Some of these less 
important varieties are: 1 Iul)l)ardston, l'>cn Davis, Eso])us Spitzenburg, 
Wagener, Duchess of Oldenburg, Red Astrachan. 

The young orchards also differ much in varieties, but the larger part 
are jdanted to Baldwin, Hen J-)a\is, ( ireening, Hul)l)ardston. Other 
varieties that are being planted to a very limited extent are: Duchess 
of Oldenburg, U'calthy, Wolf River. Mann, Grimes (/lolden, Rome Beauty, 
Maiden lUush, Red .Astrachan, .Northern S])_\\ Russt-ts, Snow, Yellow 
Bellflower, Hoikcn. Mcintosh Red, (iravenstein. Sulton Beauty, Bis- 
mark, etc. 

I'arialions ■icitliiii tJic raiicfv. — "We know that no two trees in any 
orchard are alikt', either in the amount of fruit which the\' bear or in 
their vigor and hal)it of growth. Some are uniformh" ])ro(luctive and 
some are unifonuh- unproductive. We know, too, that scions or buds 
tend to reproduce the characters of the tree from which they are taken. 
A gardener would never think of taking cuttings from a rose-bush, or 
chrysanthemum, or a carnation which does not bear flowers. Why 
should a fruit-grower take scions from a tree which he knows to be 
unprofitaljle '' 

" The indiscriminate cutting of scions is too clumsy and ine.xact a prac- 
tice for these days, when we are trying to introduce scientific methods 
into our farming."* 

Long ago men learned that two cows were not necessaril\- alike because 
the\- were both Jerseys. The man who would raise cattle from any indi- 
vidual merelv because it belonged to the desired breed would be ridiculed. 
But there are as great differences between Baldwin apple-trees as there 
are between Jersev cows. 

*L. H. Bailey, Cornell Bulletin 102, Oct, 1S03 



Ax Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, Xe\v York. 331 




Liu. 70. — I he aid " mother tree " front which all of Mr. Smith's frees zi'crc i^raflcd. 
It bears exccllriit t;/'/i/<\s- and i^ood crol^s of them. .Hn>ut 500 trees have been 
grafted from this tree. 



\'1^-S-'^ v 



/ 4/- 






^^;»C.w" ^ M 








ii ■ ^vv V i J V^ 



\* y^"-;-. 



.• ;■ •■' ^ "■ ^■ 



a. -m':^^ ^.^h^^ 



' tL^^ ^iSags^ ^^^mnn m ^ t ^ A mt tmi^ S^lSlKcS^ 



?^-Ei^y '.,. 


■■f:'-f 


r.«tmKV<HMHKll| 




^"^U^:. . ^ 


Ma^.: : -ti 



Fig. yy. — Trees in Mr. Smith's young ore!ia)d hj .^ 

tlie " mother tree." 



,v h scions from 



^^3- l'>i'!.Li'.rix _'_'h. 

When ihc fannci" has lup-grafted hi.s trees, as is sonietiines done for 
otlier reasons, there has probably been more or less unconscious selection 
from g-ood trees. i^\'\\ nurserymen have \'et paid any attention to the 
matter, nor are lhe_\- likely to do so till fruit-growers are willing to pay 
for the increased work.* 

( )ne good example of care in the selection of scions was seen in Orleans 
coimtw l'"ift\-three years ago .Mr. Russell Smith of Albion grafted one 
tree to lialdwin. This proved to l)e so exceptionally productive that he 
grafted sonic of the other trees in the same orchard with scions from it. 
A few \ears later another orchard of three acres was planted. A large 
jiarl of these trees \yere top-worked to I'aldwin with scions from the 
original tree. In i8C)8 his sons, S. W. and William Smith, decided to 
plant ten acres more. The}- bought good Xorthern Spy trees for stocks 
and top-\yorked them to l'>ald\yin. Most farmers would liave taken the 
scions from the _\oung orchard Ijecause longer and better-looking shoots 
could have l)een obtained, but the\- were not satisfied to do this. The\' 
went to the original " mother tree" for all the scions. This mother tree 
is still living and producing ap])les. " It is literally bearing itself to 
death." (.See big. 7O. ) The orch.ards grafted fr(_)m it are all producing 
large cro])s. (.See Fig. 'j'j.) ( >f course there are ])lent\- of good trees 
in Xew ^'ork that were bud(K'(l or grafteil with scions taken from voung 
trees or that were tak'en indiscriminate))' from old trees, just as there are 
good cattle that were produced without any care in breeding. .Sciiue good 
ones will certaiul\- be secured b\' accident, l)ut the scientific fruit-grower 
eliminates all accidents so far as jx^ssilile. fie increases his chances for 
success wlu'u he secures good nursery-grown stock and top-works it from 
trees of bearing age — trees of known productiveness, vigor and quality. 

''^]. If. If.'ilN & .Sdii^, 111' \\'illiani--(>n. arc .iirowiii.t; " pedi.urccd " peach trees. Tlicy 
linvc several pnod (l^cllarl1^, l)nl have only a few trce^ that they consider good enongli 
to hud from. Sncli a tree ninsi he liardv. it ninst hear the hest peaches and identy 
(It tlienr They find that the puldic i^ willing to pay more for these trees tlian for 
trees where no selecti<.in has heen practiced. 



CHAPTER XTII. 
Enkmii-zs of the Apple. 

Tlic mure serious enemies. — The codlin-nioth and the scab fungus 
are the most serious enemies of the apple in Western New York. The 
scali is not so injurious if the apples are to he evaporated, liut it ])rol)ably 
causes more loss than any other enemy whc-n a])ples are to he l)arreled. 
It was very destructive in kjoj. was of small importance in 1903, and was 
very prevalent in 1904. 

Of the insects that attack the tree, the canker-worm ( comnionl\' called 
■■ army worm ") has done the most damage, hut it is now practically sub- 
dued. Probably the wood-rot fungi have done more to shorten the lives 
of the trees than any other enemy. These gain entrance through wounds 
and rot out the trunk so that the trees eventuall\' break down. ( See 
])runing, C"ha]). I\'. ) Canker of the lim1)s has done nuich damage and 
has killed a number of entire orchards. (See page 341. ) The collar rot. 

King disease," or " winter injur\-,'" as it is variouslv designated, is the 
worst enemy of King and Spitzenburg varieties. It is not so serions 
with other varieties. (See page 345.) 

In addition to these there are man_\- kinds of insects and diseases that 
do a small amount of damage ever_\- year. In their ups-and-downs some- 
times one and sometimes another becomes serious. The bud-moth prob- 
ably did as much damage as any other insect in 1903. Aphids were the 
worst enemy of young trees and caused C(3nsiderable damage in old 
orchards. The\- were worse on thrift\- trees than on slow-growing ones. 
The best orchardists therefore suffered the most lc)ss from them. The 
apple bucculatrix, or ril)])ed cocoon-maker of the apple, the apple weevil 
aufl the mites each did considera1)le daiuage in a few orchards. Table 3^) 
indicates something of the relative importance of the various encnu'es 
in 1903. 

Tablk 36. 

f)iscil and fini<;;i)!(s ciiciiiics of the apple in I'joj. 

Injury, Nci. orchards. No. acres. 

Canker ( Sphacropsis maloniin ) serious 87 S26C' 

considerable 83 7-29^2 

Bud-moth ( Tnicldccra nccllana) serious 45 590'}4 

considerabk- ^,7 221 

slight 148 61414 

Codlin-moth (Carpocapsa ponioncUa) serious 6t ,1,1.^4 

considerable 45 631 

slight all beariug orchards 

333 



334 Bulletin 226. 

Table 36 — Coiichtdcd. 

Injurj-. No, orchards. No. acres. 

Collar rot considerable ,31 212 

slight nearly all old orchards 

Aphis ( .Ij'liis /'('»;/) serious 55 458 

considerable 44 324J/2 

slight all orchards 

Scab ( / 'cnluria iuaaiualis) serious f>6 4-4J^2 

considerable OS 440 

slight all bearing orchards 

Apple-weevil (AulJioiuuinis (]!iadri<ii''hiis) serious 1,3 87^ 

considerable 1.3 ygVz 

slight 

Apple bucculatrix ( lUtcciilalri v f^ouiifulirlln ) serious 

considerable 
slight 

Canker on leaves (Spliacropsls in al urn in ) serious 

con>iderable 
slight 

Leaf-blister mites serious 

considerable 
slight 

Leaf sjxit ( rhyllosliclti sf.) serious 

considerable 
slight 

Leaf sewer ( Pho.vuptcris iicbccitUiiui ) serious 

consideral)le 
slight 

Canker- w'lrm ( Palracniti rrniata) serious 

consideral)le 
slight 

Tent caterpillar ( Clislncanif^a ann-ricaiui ) serious 

considerable 
slight 

Woolly aphis ( Sflucoiicnra lani^iicra ) serious 

considerable 
slight 

Fall \\eb worm ( 1/ yf'Iiaulria cniwa) serious 

considerable 
slight 

San Jose scale ( .-^sf^ulinliis pcnuricsus ) serious 

considerable 
slight 

This table includes all the enemies that were foinid to be serious in any orchard, 
except borers and the wood-rot fungi. Many other insects and fungi were seen but 
were not doing any considerable harm. 

Com III on notions regarding orchard enemies. — It is interesting to note 
tlie enemies that have impressed themselves on the minds of the oreliard- 
ists. In answer to the question as to what insects or diseases had damaged 
the orchard in the i)ast, the canker-worm was mentioned for 173 orchards, 
seal) fur 120, tent-cateri)illars tVn- 112; codlin-motli came fotn-th. No 
other enem\' was mentioned more than five times. Among- those men- 
tioned were canker, liorers. San Jose scale, i)ink rot. case-hearers, collar 
rot, U'.if rolk'r, oyster-shell bark louse, aphids, handmaid moth, ctu'culio, 
]>almerwvorm. Losses due to mice, sun scald and russcting of the frtiit 
were also mentioned. 



j8 


182 


7 


73 


9 


156/2 


all old 


orchards 


4 


94 


.3 


67 


I 


4 


4 


25/2 


6 


34 


56 


372y4 


5 


44 


9 


383'! 


nearlv a 


11 orchards 


4 


43 


7 


104 


,3,3 


719 


.3 


21 


3 


12/ 


3 


27/ 


! 


10 


J 


6/ 


,30 


146^1 


2 


6 


4 


22 


nearlv a 


11 orchards 








2 


3'A 


^7 


479/ 








I 


4 


I 


2 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 33=5 

The Apple-Scab Fungus {Vciifuna iiiacqualis). 

Importance of this disease. — The worst disease with which the apple- 
grower has to contend is the apple-scab, commonly called " the 
fungus." More questions are asked about it than about any other 
enemy of the apple, and there is great dilTerence of opinion among 
farmers as to what it is and what to do about it. True, spraying has 
become an accepted practice and the best fruit-growers practically 
eliminate the scab, but the majority of farmers do not do so. The 
varying opinions are due to the fact that the fungus is invisible or 
inconspicuous until it " goes to seed." A knowdedge of its life history 
is essential to any intelligent treatment of it. It has been fre(|uentlv 
described, but the information is 
not yet sufficiently disseminated. 
I shall, therefore, attempt to answer 
some of the common questions that 
are asked about it. A few ques- 
tions are asked over and over again. 
"What is the fungus?" "What 
causes it?" "Why is it worse in 
wet seasons?" "Why are some 
varieties more affected than others?" 

JJliaf is the scab fiiiii!;iis.' — "This 
apple-scab is no new pest. It has 
no doubt been seriously present p^,. yS.-Vou„g atopics snrrcly attacked 
ever since ajijiles were grown in by the scab fungus. 

the country, causing many fail- 
ures of crops which were laid to the weather or the moon."* 

This fungus is a very small plant that grows as a parasite on the 
leaves and on the apple. — the apple is its soil. We might say that it 
is a weed that grows on the apple and allied fruits rather than on the 
ground. It lives over winter on the fallen leaves and perhaps to a very 
limited extent on the branches. " Scab makes its first appearance early 
in the spring, usually soon after the leaves begin to unfold, and it is 
while these and the fruit are in a young condition that the fungus 
can best infect them."t (See Fig. 78.) The seed (spore) falls on the 




*L. H. Bailey in Cornell Bulletin 84. Jan., 1895. 

tGeorge P. Clinton, Bui. 67, Univ, of 111. Agr. Exp. Sta. Dec, 1901. 



l() 



UULLETIN 22(h 



ynuu'^ apple or on the k-al and llicro gTOvvs, sending its roots 
(myccliuiii ) into the tissues of the apple. At fii-st the infected spot 




IS in\ isihle, later 
it causes the skin 
to take ( )u a deep 
ijli\'e-.L'rL en ei 'li u", 
ddin ui iliceil unti 
season when it 
the >kui an( 
seal). I' 1 .!-;■. 7W 
a])ple tliat lias 
this sta,L;e. Tlic 
the a ]) ]) le is 
e x ] ) 1 1 ^ i n M- the 
which has now 



but it is sel- 
still later in the 
Inxaks thn.iugh 
causes the l)lack 
lows a n 
u^t reached 
outer skin of 
reaking away 
V\r.. jq, — T!u' oiiUt shin U-iillclcn-iipluj\'il. ]^]■^^^^\^ fuu.Q'US, 
cw/^osiiii' the fitiiiius. 



"gone to 

seed. ' In time the sjtores are l)l(_»wn and washed away and some of the 
fungus cells and dead tissue are more or less worn away so that the color 

max l)(,'Come a reddish-l)rown. 
i\\\v to the ex])0sed dead corky 
tissue. The seal) spots on the 
lelt in I'ig. (S(t show the spores 
and lungus cells beginning to 
leaxc from the center of the 
s]>oi. The large scab on the 
right shows the rust_\- scar that 
is K-tt after the disease tissue 
has scaled oft. h\u'iners (lescril)e 
this change by sa_\ing that " the 
lungus leaves the a])])le." or 
the fungus changes to rust." 
If this takes ])lace before the 




Fic. So— 77;,- diseased tissue seal'ir^ nl'i' fi 
the (//'/i/r. 



is i)icked, the appearance 



An Ai'i'i.i'; (Jrliiakd Si'k\i:v oI' \\'.\\M': C'ouxiv. Xi-:\v \'()kk. 337 

and keeping" quality are not so seriously ati'eeted as when i)ieke(l in the 
stage shown in Fig'. y(), hut the fungus ma}- make some further growth 
around the edge of the sear if put in warm storage. 

l"lg. 8r shows a llaldwin apple so hadly attaeked that it has heeome 
distorted and eracked. Most cases of cracking of the ai)i)le are due 
to this fungus. 

Fig. 82 shows three sections of ai)])le-leaves. " In Fig. i the leaf is 
health}. ( )hserve the regularit}' of the three uj^per la}'ers of cells. In 
Fig. 2. the hrown fungus may be seen growing on the upper surface, 
and at this stage it has 
(lestro}ed the ni)i)e'r or 
epidermal cells, althnugh 
it is ])rohal)le that the 
m}celium of the fungus 
first spreads just under 
the cuticle, ou top of the 
la}-er of e])idermal cells, 
h'ig. 3 shdws the fungus 
when it is better estab- 
lished, and it will lie S(.'en 
that all the cells of the 
leaf are disarranged, the 
chlorophyll or green 
grains being few in 
number, and the leaf has 
increased in thickness. 
This. big. 3. is a cross-scctii ni ihruugh one of the blislei'dike elex'ations 
which are shown on tlu' leaf in iMg. 8,^. It will be seen that the fungus 
does not enter the deeper tissues of the leaf, allliimgh it disorganizes 
them bv its parasitic effects. In big. 3. a s])()re can be seen at A, and 
two are shown broken oft' their stem or hxphae at l'>. In b'ig. _' the simres 
can be seen in ])rocess of formatit^n at the ends of the threads, and at C" 
one of tb.e threads is cut oft'."" 

Relation of flio ■:ccaflier fo tlic scab fiiii^iis. — Xearl}- all fungi are fav- 
ored bv wet weather; wheat rust, bean rust, potato blight, etc., are all 
worse in wet seasons. The wet weather docs not create anv fungus 




Fir,. 81. — BaUii^'iii a,t'fh' s!io:c!ni; cniclciiiff chw Ic I lit 
!iin;jiis. 



*L. H. Bailey in Cdrnell Bulletin S4. Jan.. 1805. 



338 



Bui.LlL'llN 226. 



any more than favorable weather creates a corn crop. A fungus can- 
not (le\elup unless the spores get on the host plant an}' more than a 
corn crop can be grown without planting" the seed, ilut there are usually 
l)lent\- of si)ores on liand so that all they need is weather fa\orable to 
their grow^th. Unusually wet weather during the blossoming period 
favors the growth of the seal) fungus. I'or the same reason it does 
more damage in shady, unpruned and imdrained orchards. Dense 
tops ])re\-ent the eva])oration of tlu- moistiu'e. ( )pen tops allow the 
air to circulate freelw and they therefore (piickdy dry out after a 
rain or dew. 

Sonic rariclics arc more affected than otlicrs. 



B^ 





S^-i 









l^ 



I) '4 <o '^' 



■ ' l''' ; 









r4 s^ 












^-^tJ'^ 



(^V; 
^ 



he Snow, Spitzenburg 
and Maiden Blush 
are particularly sub- 
ject to seal). The 
( jrcening and Twenty 
( )uncc' arc more af- 
fected than the Bald- 
win. ( ioldcn Russet 
and Hul)bardston are 
among the more 
resistant varieties. 
The difference is 
])rol)al)ly due to the 
more tender outer 
skins of some vari- 
eties. The fungus 
must penetrate the 
outer skin before it can do an\- damage. Tt is interesting to note that 
while the Greening apples are much more affected than the Baldwin, yet 
the llaldwin Niliage is ver_\- nnich more affected than that of the Greening. 
Relation to otJicr fnni^i. — The seal) fungus is often confused with other 
fimgi that secure a foothold in the wounds caused l)v the scab. Part 
of this confusion is doul)tless due to the fact that the scab is almost 
always called " the fungus." It would be well if farmers would call 
it the ap]ile-scab. in order to distinguish it from the hundreds of other 
fungi. The scab fungus causes the dark spots on the ai^])le that mav 
later change to rusty spots. It is never white. The white moulds that 
sometimes grow on these same spots are other fungi that could not have 



Fig. 8j. — Cross-seclions of nf^flc LuTecs i. llcaltJiy leaf. 
2. Tlie upper surface attacked by Ihc srah fiiir^iis, _?. 
.■/ Idler slai^r in tJic iinm'tli of llw funi^iis. 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 339 




luirt the apple had the skin not been 
broken by the seab or by some injury. 
One of these, the pink rot, caused much 
damage in 1902.* 

Treatment. — A sutficient number of 
thorough sprayings with the Bordeaux 
mixture will keep the apples prac- 
tically free from scab. The essential 
points are thoroughness and prompt- 
ness. Spraying after the scab becomes 
established does little or no good. Some 
men have been surprised to see the 
scab develop under sjxits where the 
sprav was still visible. This simj^ly 
means that the sj^raying was too late — 
the fungus was already in the ap])le. 

Since the spores do not all germinate pic,. S4.— Leaf spots t'robably caused 
at once, we should not expect one appli- ^y ^/'-V//'>../ir/fl sp. ' 

cation of Bordeaux to keep off all the 
scab any more than we would expect one 
culti\-ation of a corn crop to kill all the 
pigweeds. ( )ne ai^plication if made at 
the right time will, however, frequently 
make a great difference. Three spray- 
ings at the right times will nearly always 
keep the ajjples free from scab. Two 
will sometimes do so. A further dis- 
cussion of the method of summer treat- 
ment and of winter treatment will l)e 
found under spraying. (Pages 392 

Leaf spots caused by the scaJ^ fiiiii^us. — 
Fig. 83 shows the large blister-like eleva- 
tions caused bv the scab. These spots 
usually occur on the upper surface, but 

are not confined to that surface. Late in 
Fig. 83. — The scab fungus on the ^. . 1111-1 1 

, , tlie season thev are nearly black, the color 

leaf. 




'Cornell Piulletin 207. 



,UO 



SuLLi'rriN 226. 



ut the scab on tlie ap]^lc. Scab did considcTalilr daiiiai^'c t(^ the folia.^e in 
unspraved orchards in 1904. 

Leaf spots caused by other diseases. — l-'it;'. (S4 shows the spots caused 
l)y a (Hffercnt funiL^us, prohal»l> I'liyllostieta. TIk'sc spots are of a red(hsh- 
hrown color, llivx do not l)lister the Iraf. 'Idiis fundus (Hd little 
daniaj4'e in ujo^. hut in the wet season of KJ04 it caused much daniao'C 
to the leaves. Spraying- seems to have had little or no eftect in checkini:;' 
this disease. 

The so-called " yellow leaf "" that caused the leaves to fall during Jul_\" 
and August was partl\- due to this trouhk- and partlv due to wet 

Soil. Alau\- orchards that are ordi- 
nari]\- well drained were wet this 
}ear. ( See h^ig. 74. ) ddiose that 
are ordinaril\- too wet were very 
hail in ii)i>4. 'Idle leaf sjiot was 
generalK much worse in the poorly 
drained orchards. In some orchards 
the scah on the leaf and the mites 
also caused leaves to fall. 

Leaf-hlister mite. — iMg. 85 shows 
the under side of a leaf infested 
with the blister mite, ddiis had not 
been reported as occurring on the 
a])])le until it was found during the 
orchard surve\ in \\a\ne county. 
Specimens were sent to Professor 
Slingerland, who wrote as follows 
(-oncerning them: " ddie pear-leaf- 
blister mite is now a well-known 
pest in man\- sections of the country. l)ut never liefore imtil last summer 
had we seen or heard of a similar pest in apple-leaves. Scattered through 
central X'ew N'ork there were many a])])le-trees with man\- of their leaves 
showing the cork\- blisters characteristic of these mites. We have not 
\et made a careful stud\ of the mites to determine if the_\- are the same 
as the pear s])ecies. ddie blisters in the apj^le-leaves differ slightly from 
those in pear, but this may l)e due to the different food-plants."" These 
mites were found in 53 orchards in 1903 and were found in manv orchards 




■"ir,. 85. — Under side of leaf, showiiiii leaf 
I'lislcrs caused hy mites. 



*Bul]elin 4^). Division of I'".ntiininl(i;4y, I'. I^. Deiirirtmcnt nf \L;ricu1nire 



An ApplI': Drciiard Suk\'F.v of WavnI': CorxiN'. Xi.w \'()rk. 341 

ill Orleans C(nint\' in 11)04. Tlicx- were not very l);ul in more than a liall 
dozen orchards in each connt\ . bnt in a few orchards some trees had prac- 
tically every leaf affected. Their local distribution eyen in the severe 
cases seems to indicate that they do not spread rapidly. The or(hnary 
sprayino" has no eff'ect on them. l)ecause they liye within the leaf where 
poison can not reach them. Tt is i)rol)al)le that kerosene emulsion ap])lied 
before the buds open would kill them. 

Injuries due to these three causes and to many other enemies that 
attack the leaves are quite commonly confused with each other and with 
spots that are sometimes caused by sprayini;". 

The Applk-Tri-;i-: Ca.\k1':r ( Spliacruf'sis uialonmi Tk.). 

Description. — The black, rous^h bark and partially i;-irdled hml).s are so 
characteristic of this disease that it is easil) reco,i;nized. (See hii;'. 8(). ) 
The diseased ])art ma\- extend for several feet alonj^' the Ijranch. or may 
be oulv a small spot. L'sualh' it is tive to ten inches Ioul^'. 1 he bark 
may be merel_\- muo-henied and black (as in A', I'di.;-. (S()) or the limb may 
be ])artially o-irdled {as in ./, Fig. 86). In the worst cases the dead limbs 
stick out all over the tree-top. (See Fig'. ?^~.) 

Extent of the injury. — 'Idle canker causes more loss tlian any other 
disease except the seal) fun.yus and. jxissibly. the fungi that cause the 
trunks to (leca\' when impro])erl\- pruned. It was fotmd to be very serious 
in 14 per cent of the orchards and. was doiug considerable damage in 
19 per cent. Injuries of this character are less conspicuous Init are much 
more serious than those that affect the leaves — canker attacks the tree 
directlw It does not (^ften do luuch damage on y(~)ung trees. It usually 
occurs on limbs two to three inches in diameter, but- sometiu'.es attacks 
the twigs or larger limbs. Tt very rarel\- occurs on the trunks, except 
on the Twenty Ounce. ddiis variety is particular])- subject to the disease. 
I have seen very few- mature Twenty Ounce trees that were not badly 
infected. It is also serious on the Spitzenburg. The I'aldwin is more 
affected than the Greening. Russet, King (~>r Xorthern Spy. 

The same fungus occurs on the leaves, but does not»seem to be serious. 
In Wavne county in IQO,^ it was found on the leaves in eight orchards 
and was doing considerable damage in seven of them. It was not found 
on the foliage of anv orcha.rd examined in i()()4. Ou tlie leaf it shows 
a distinct series of concentric circles. ( )ne infectc'd i)oint may develop 



342 



Bulletin 226. 




Fig, S6.— Canker of the af^/^lr-frcr. In fl only the outer hart: is affected. A 

xJiows Ihc bvancli Inilf girdled. 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 343 



#.^ 




\ 






h 



344 BuLLKTix 226. 

to nearly half an inch in diameter. The brown rot vi sti>re(l apples is 
also due to the same fungus. 

Cause. — The cause was not known until about si.\ ^•ears ago, when it 
was worked out by Wendell Paddock of the Geneva station.'" I'ntil that 
time it was commonly attriliuted to sun-scald. Comi)aratively few fruit- 
growers are yet informed of the real cause. Jt is still attriljuted to sun- 
scald or lightning, or jjasses as " dead liml)s "' without any cause. I'rac- 
tically no sun-scald has been seen in either of the counties studied. 

Mr. Paddock found that the canker is caused b\- a fimgus that grows 
on the bark and cambiumf layer of the tree. Idie black color of the 
canker is partl_\- due to the s])ore-fruits of {\\v fungus. Many of the 
spores (seeds) remain on the l)ranches till si)ring or longer, when they 
are given otf and disseminated. The fungus seems to be unable to pene- 
trate t(_) the cambium la_\er through living bark. The cankers are thought 
to be formed by those spores that chance to fall in some slight wound 
and there germinate and ])roduce more cankers. .Sometimes the fungus 
grows for some distance on the outer bark without penetrating to the 
cambium. (See />', big. S^». ) In such cases no direct injury is done to 
the tree, but spores are ])roduced and disseminateil so that a constant 
soiu'ce of infection is maintained. 

I'l'Ciihiiriil. — Willi the exce])tion of tlu' Twenl\- ( )unce. no orchard in 
which the trees have alwaxs been ke])! in a good growing condition has 
Ijeen found (o be seriousK' affected. .Something more than thrift}' grc^wth 
seems t(_) ])c nt'cessar_\' in order to prex'ent the destruction of the Twenty 
Ounce. 

A few farmers in W axiie coimt\' and hk 're in ( )rleans count\ have been 
treating the disease during the ]:)ast few vears and have had excellent 
results. The essential i)oints of the treatinent are: 

(1) Prune out the limbs that are badh" diseased. 

(2) Si)ray the limbs with liordeaux mixture. 

(3) ^^lost important of all. get the trees to growing. 

Mr. ('1. D. Simi)son of ("arlton has carried the treatment a steji farther. 
^^'hen pruning he scraped olT the rough, disi'ased bark around each 
canker and gave a generous ;ip]ilication of strong blue vitriol. This was 
undoubtedK' a good thing, but the treatment given above seems to l:)e 
invariabh' successful. 



'^New ^'clrk .\!.!riniltur;il IvxpcriiiKiit Stiitinn. I'.ulK'liii \(i,]. Dec, iSoo 
tTlu' caml)iuin I;iyrr is a lissne tliat lies 1h-! w ecu tlir wimk] aiiil tlic l)arl<. Il is llu' 
lissui' llial iu'imIiu'cs llie iK'W wi.hmI and niiu'i- lurk. 



An Apple Orciiakd S^R\■K^' oi" Wavxi'. C"ountv, New York. 345 

Mr. Albert Wood of Carlton Station has even grown new tops on his 
Twenty Onnce trees and has kept the new growth from becoming 
diseased by spraying the limbs and by keeping the trees growing. This 
variety is so subject to canker that it can not be kept healthy without 
constant viofilanee. 



Collar Ror. 
Occurrence and de- 
scription. — In nearly 
every mature orchard 
one comes across some 
trees on which the Ijark 
around the base is dead 
and loose, or has fallen 
away. The injury usu- 
ally extends only 6 to 18 
inches above the ground, 
but sometimes it ex- 
tends 3 to 4 feet up the 
trunk. As the area of 
dead bark increases, the 
tree may be entirely 
girdled. (See Fig. 88.) 
It is quite commonly 
attributed to the hired 
man ha\ing" hit the tree 
with the machiner\- when 
working in the orchard, 
and the injury does re- 
semble a wound made 
by hitting the trunk at 
the surface of the 




88.—./ Baldwin fr, 
' s/^of ill hose o; 



• I: a led by collar rot. Note 
tree. In this t7eenty-acre 
oieliard about one-third of the trees are dead and 
oiie-tliird more are badly att'eeted. In this ease the 
very poor drainai;e has been laroely resfousible. 



gnnmd. But before the blame can l)e fixed on the hired man we nuist 
explain how he happened to hit all the King and Spitzenburg trees and 
missed most of the Baldwins and Greenings, also why the disease is as 
bad or worse in those orchards that have not been tilled. 

This disease is the worst enemy of the King ai)i)le. It has sometiiues 
been called the "' King disease."* Proljablv the majority of all the trees 



^Bulletin 191. N. V. A.uT. V.s\y Sta. 



346 



Bulletin 226. 




y-f, f^^~ 



Imi.. Sq. — cV//7i/>- /ni Hi the ki.i-. Mi^'.eniy, 
diseased and cracked condition of 
hark. 

decay and frc(HK'iitl\' yirdlc the 
tree. 

I'rcalnicnt. — Little can l)e done 
except to treat the wonnd as an\- 
other wound should lie treated. If 
the dead bark is cleaned a\\a_\ and 
])aint ai)])lied, it will dela\' the 
<leca\' of the wood, in souie cases 
this has jireserwd the woo<l and 
the wound has healed t>ver. 

The eii'ective treatment nnrst l)e 
])revention. if hardy stocks are 
planted and top-worked to Kini;" or 
Esopus Spitzenburi;-, the trouble is 
avoided. (See Fii;". \)2.) The losses 
of r.aldwin from this disease are 
not \'erv L^'reat. but are enou.^ii so 
that it niiL;ht pay to top-work them 



of this variet)' that are thirty years 
(»ld are a{Tfecte<l. It is nearly as 
serious on the Spitzenburg. The 
Baldwin is more afifected than the 
Spy, GreeniuiL;' or Russets, l)ut none 
of these are as liadly attected as are 
the Kint;- and Spitzenl^uri;". It 
seems to be worse on poorly drained 
land than un g'ood .soil. 

Cause. — The cause is not (\ii'^- 
nitel}' known. It is probal)lv some- 
times due to winter injury, but this 
does not seem to account for it in 
all cases. Whatever the original 
cause, tlu' wound once made be- 
comes infected 1)\ the wood-rot 
fun^i, which cause the trunk to 





S: 




■^ 


. I'% 








■ -% 





Fro. 00. — Collar rot of llie Kini^. The 
same tree as in I'iii- ^0 re/'/// .'//(• (/<•(((/ 
hiirk renioi'ed. 



An Apple Orchard Survicy of Wavni-: County, Nf.w ^'okk.* 347 

also on some hardier stock, as the Spy. When we add to this the desira- 
bihty of each gTOwer selecting his own scions from ])roductive trees, it 
will probably be well worth while to top-bud or graft. 

The planting of the King has almost ceased on account of ])revalence 
of this disease. But it furnishes no reason whatever for abandoning 
this excellent apple. In the many cases where the Kings were top- 




Imc. qi. — A ro:^' of Kings, all affected z^'itli collar rot. Dying gvadiially but surely. 



grafted, as suggested above, there has been no appearance of the 
trouble, or no more trouble than was usual for the variety of stock 
on which it was grafted. /;/ I'iczv of fhcsc facts, if sccnis fair to say that 
no King or Esof>iis Spifrjcitbiirg tree propagated in the ordinary -way 
should be set in JJ\\s'tern .Yew YorJc. If these z'arieties are desired, 
secure them by top-grafting on some liardy stock. 



34'^ 



U'LLETIX 226. 




ViL,. QJ. — Collar yol avuidcd by top-zcorkhig on Spy stock. 



CHAPTER xn'. 

Yri-:r,i)s. M.\rivi:is and Prici^s. 

Avcrai:i;c yields. — The fuUowing- tal)les gi\-c some o\ tlie chief points in 
the average vields : 



Tat-i.e $7. 
Approxiuiatc total yield for entire county. 



1899 (U. S. Census report 

1900 

190T 

igo2 



Bushels. 
1,394.000 
-4,872,000 

672,000 
4,053.000 



1902 . 
I903t 



Taiu.k 38. 
Ai'craj.',e yield per acre. 



Trees Set Before 1880. 1 Thees Set Since 1879 

Acres 



Average. 



No. or- 
chards 



Acres. 



Average .Vo. or- 
yield. chards. 



Average Xo. or- 
vield. chards. 



Acres ^ Average 
^"^^- yield. 



1899* ' ' '19.000 

1900 I 171 I 1,496341 252 I 18 I 190 I 46 189 ' 1.68634 

I9OI 293 2. 041 34 I 34 I 25 i 240 ' 22 318 2,281,34! 



.V85 -3.7.U'4 



31 ! 3.^.^ 



74 416 

. . . 200 



3. 067;,+ 
I,62I>4| 



7,^ 

229 

3,2 

206 

265 



*The }'ielcl for hSgc^ is for " frees of beariiiii' ai^e " and is t.alsen from llie census 
report. 

tThe averag'e j-ield for 1903 is tOD l.-irge fnr it does not inehide young trees nor 
docs it inchide orchards that uaxe no \ield. 



Tap,],!-: 39. 
-iveraiic yield per tr, 



Trees set before 1880. 

1899 (trees of liearing a.ge) 

1900 

190T 

1902 



Bub 


hels 


I 


7S 


5 


7^ 




78 


5 


01 



Average 



3 ■ 33 



This calculation is fi.r the nuniher of trees that the orchards would contain if 
there were no trees missing. 

310 



350 BlTLLl'.TIN 226. 

Tahlf, 40. 

/Izrroiir ituinhrr ,>f hifslwls raised I'v t-ar!) liraz^'cr iu U'alr^'orlli. 

Bushels. 

IQOO 1,700 

I9OT 210 

1902 T.200 

The thrce-ycar-average yield in Walwortli township is abont thirty-four bushels 
above that of the entire cotmty. This difference is due to the poorer care given in 
the remainder of tlie county, particularly in the southern part. 

Tai;].!-; 41. 

I'liriiitiniis ill yields of urcliards. 

The foll(]\\ iug table will give some idea of the distribution of yields that produced 
the averages in 190 J, trees set before 18S0. 



YIELD. 



o-ioo bushels. . . 
101-200 bushels. . . 
201-300 bushels. . . 
301-400 l)ushcls. . . 
401-500 bushels. . . 
Over 500 bushels. 



Walworth. 


Remainuei 


OF County. 


Entirk 


County. 


No. 
orcliards. 


No. acres. 


No. 
orchards. 


No. acres. 


No. 
orchards. 


No. acres. 


:.(> 


iqi ' ' 


17 


?86!i 


53 


578 


/.s 


,^61 '_, 


-7 


4i7!< 


102 


779 


75 


,^i--V 


28 


344'^ 


103 


657>4 


4b 


301 


II 


194 


57 


495 


26 


67'. 


5 


55 


31 


I22>< 


31 


S5 


5 


53 


36 


138 



The largest }'ield reported for tlie year 1902 was 1,000 Inishels ])er acre from a 
four-acre orcliard. 



Markets — the ci\}[^ orating iitiliistrx. — The (ircliard industry of this 
count}- cannot ])c uudcr.stood without a knowledge of the e\'a]>orating- 
in<lustry. llow ])redouiinant this industr\' is can be seen Ijy r .^ferring' 
to taljle 42. The i)r()])ortion of ai)])les cva])oi'ated varies from year to 
}ear. being inlluenced b\- the qualit_\- of the fruit and the relative prices of 
green and dried apples. l*rol;)ably seventy-five per cent of all the apples 
raised in this county during the ])ast four years has been evaporated. 
.\ little less than half the eva])orated fruit was ex-ajiorated l)y the man 
who grew it. That which is sokl usually goes to some farmer's 
evapcjrator. The e\aporators tire almost as characteristic of the farm- 
yards as are the barns. 'Idiey also occur in all of the \illages, but the 
largest jiart of the eva])orating is done on the farms, ddie industrv 
is a rural one and seems likely to remain such for some years. 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 351 

T.\ELE 42. 
JVhat becomes of the atopic crop. 



HOW DISPOSED OF. 


1900. 


1901. 


1902. 


1903. 


Bushels. 

90, 650 
92,641 


Per 
cent. 


Bushels. 


Per 

cent. 


Bushels. 


Per 
cent. 


Bushels. 


Per 
cent. 


Evaporated by the 
grower 

Sold to be evapo- 
rated 

Picked and sold in 
barrels or in bulk. . 


14.094 
9. 933 

18,600 


26 

■ 
18 

34 


191,480 

-'1 3- 643 

73.000 
107,830 

7-950 


36 
12 

18 
2 


160,840 

134.319 
139,085 


2,7 
31 

:i2 


Part evaporated or 
sold to evaporate 
and part barreled, 
the proportion not 


88,178 

6,000 


3^ 
2 


Otherwise disposed 

of 


5,39^ 


I 











If we apportion the yield that was partly barreled and partly evaporated then the 
percentage of the crop evaporated would he about as follows : 1900, 85 per cent ; 
1901, 60 per cent; 1902, 75 per cent; 1903, 68 per cent. 

Table 43. 

Orchards from zvhicli the entire crop was ei'aporalcd or sold to evaporate — none 

zi'crc hand-picked. 



YEAR. 



No. orchards 



1900 
19OI 
1902 
1903 



104 

41 
288 

113 



No. acres. 



329 >^ 
1657/'^ 
583 



No. bushels. 



151,700 

17,060 

316,980 

147,830 



Per cent 

of the 

total yield. 



57 
31 
45 
34 



In man}- cases the fact that the women and children of the household 
can help in the work, so reduces the expense that the small evaporator 
can successfully compete with the larger ones. 

The evaporating industry furnishes a good outlet for fruit that is 
not good enough to barrel. Tt should be encouraged b\' every possible 
means. The ease of preserving and the small space into which a bushel 
of apples can be condensed make this a very desirable way of reaching 
the cheaper trade in Europe and Asia as well as in our own cities. 



35-' 



Bulletin 226. 








.•--,ra:» 



'^^r3 



I ^'^ 



^ V 



K 



*■/. /.'</;•/( 




'Jaulin:^ hi llic dct^ol. 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, Xe\v York. 353 

The dried apples occupy only about one-sevenih of the space occupied by 
the green apples from which the\' came. This makes a great saving in 
the cost of transportation. The Government can be of great assistance in 
helping to develop these markets. There should be a good future for the 
evaporating industry. 

But in order to secure and retain this trade the evaporator men must 
furnish a product that will keep. < )ne of the reasons for the present low 
price is undoubtedly the result of marketing what has been aptly termed 
"apple sauce." The stock is not dried sufficiently to keep well. ( )ne 
reliable firm evaporated 52.000 bushels in 1903, which averaged O.29 lbs. 
of dried stock per Inishel. ddieir average in 1902 was (kS^ IIjs. The 
average of a number of small evaporators in 1903 was 7.45 llxs. 

The number of pounds dried stock that a l)ushel will give varies 
greatly with the \ariety of the a])ple. Winter varieties average from 
one-fifth to (jne-seventh al)Ove the fall varieties. Ivussets give a larger 
product than ( ireening or I'.aldwin. l!en Davis and Twent\- ( )unce give 
less than these. The amount is said to vary in difi^erent years. But none 
of these factors account for the difference between 6.29 and 7.45 pounds. 
If the stock that was dried till a bushel gave onl\- ().2^) jiounds was prop- 
erly dried, what can we say of that which contained 1.16 pounds more 
water, or what of that where nearly 9 poiuids of dried stock were secured 
from a bushel? The whole sul)ject of evaporating and marketing 
deserves a careful study. 

It zcould pay to raise better fruit aiid barrel more of it. — Desirable as 
the evaporating industry is in disposing of ])oor fruit, there is little 
question that it would pay the growers to raise better apples and pick 
the best for Ijarreling. From a third to a half of the crop, de])ending 
on the }-ear, is sold to evaporate without thus selecting the best to 
barrel, that is. the entire crop is shaken from the trees for evaporating. 
(See table 43.) This includes a still larger proportion of the number 
of orchards, in some vears as many as three-fourths, for it is more 
practiced in the small orchards than in the larger ones. 

A few growers, ])articidarly in the western ])art of the county, sell 
a part of their cro]) in Rochester to retail dealers or sell it on the 
streets. This is particularly ])rofitable with ap])les of extra good 
quality. 

There are a numl)er of secondary markets. One man used 50,000 
bushels in 1902 for the manufacture of brandy. The \incgar works 



354 Bulletin' 226. 

of the American Fruit Product Company at Newark make about half 
a million gallons of cider and vinegar per year. Many others make 
smaller quantities of cider and vinegar. 

Prices. — Apples for evaporating are sold bv the 100 pounds. The 
average prices and the prices of barreled apples are given in table 44. 

T.\P.LE 44. 

Airragr f^ncc paid for apples to ei-aporalc per inn lbs. (3 bushels). 
Year. IVice. 

1900 $0 ?0 

1901 ■. . . 64 

1902 44 

1903 41.^^ 

.-Ivcra'^c price per barrel. 



/:> 



1902 I 

1903 I 85 

.Average price iier busliel picked apples sold in l)nlk, 1903.. 44.2 

.'\vcrage price per pound for dried stock. [Qo,^ .0504 

Appk\s sold on the streets and to groccrymen in Rochester are quite variable in 
I)rice, hut usually I)ring two to three times as nnich as when sold to dry. 

The vinegar factories pay the lowest price of any market. The 1902 prices ranged 
from 12 to 20 cents per hundred. 

Income per acre. — The average gross income per acre for the entire 
county from orchards set before 1880 has been as follows: 1900, $37.80; 
1901, $14.28; 1902, $48.18. The averages in Walworth township have 
been considerably l)etter than the average for the county. If these incomes 
seem rather small, it must be remembered that averages include orchards 
that have received no care of any kind as well as those that have received 
the best ])(»ssil)le treatment. I'nfortunatelv the average expense can trot 
he obtained, for very few men keep an accotmt (if the expense of caring 
for the orchard. In a very large number of orchards — the ones that lower 
the average yield and income — there is ])racticall\- no expense except the 
use of the land and the expense of hauling the apples to the evaporator. 
Table 45 will give a better idea of the average income, as it gives the 
number of orchards for each difference of $10 in income. 



An Apple Orchard Sl'rxf.v of Wavxe County, New York. 355 

Taijle 45. 
Average iueoinc per acre from orchards set before 1880. entire countv. 



INCOME 
PER ACRE. 



No. or- 
chards. 



Less than $10. . . ^ 14 

$10 to $19 I 14 

20 to 29 i 16 

30 to 39 I 30 

40 to 49 j 21 

50 to 59 22, 

60 to 69 25 

70 to 79 I II 

80 to 89 I 5 

go to 99 I 2 

100 to 124 9 

125 to 149 I 2 

150 or more. ... 5 



1900. 



No. 
acres. 



i2iy, 
161 
164': 
1 86;^ 
10351 



134 

74; 

13 

6 

144 

8 

14 



1/ 



Per 
cent. 



10. 

13-3 



No. or- 
chards. 



1901. 



No. 
acres. 



7 


3 


II 


I 


6 


2 


I 


I 





5 


II 


I 





7 


I 


2 1 



118 

25 
29 



9 

16 

I 

I 



670/4 

276 

201 

55/2 
52 
147 
8 

4 



23 K 
12% 



Per 
cent. 



44 


5 


18 


4 


13 


4 


3 


/ 


3 


5 


9 


8 





5 





3 


I 


5 


I 


6 


2 


2 





« 



No. or- 
chards. 



16 
?>?, 
34 
52 
40 
43 

22 

34 
18 
16 
30 
18 
10 



190^ 



No. 
acres. 



1055-2 

^52 '2 
2I3'2 

356>^ 
277 
23052 
98 

1 75 V 
118 ■, 
85 '2 

135 '-2 
140 '2 
169 



Per 
cent. 



4-4 
10. 
9.0 



5 9 

7.0 



1900. 



igoi. 



1902. 



Average income per acre — entire county- — j 
trees of all ages 

Average income per acre — entire county — 
trees set before 18S0 

Average income per acre in Walworth — trees 
set before 1880 

Average total incomeper grower in Walworth 



*34 


35 


M 


80 


49 


50 


255 


00 



$13 44 


$44 70 


14 28 


48 iS 


17 22 
88 20 


52 58 
264 00 



SUMMARY. 



Extcnl of the Sur:'cy. — During the summer of 1903, 574 orchards, con- 
taining" 3,701 acres, were examined in Wayne euunt\. In 1904, 564 
orchards, ui 4,881 acres, were examined in ( )rlcans county. The statistics 
in tliis report are l)ased on Wayne county. Tlie results from Orleans 
county we hope to puhlish later. 

Area plaii/cd to iif^plcs. — There arc in Wayne county about 21,000 acres 
of apple orchards. The total area of improved land in farms is 305,299* 
acres; or. 0.9 i)er cent of the improved farm land is planted to apples. 

/ '(;;'/r//V.s\— Ualdwin and Greening- are the leading varieties. Roxbury 
Russet, King, Northern Si)y and Twenty Ounce are also rather exten- 
sivel\- grown. The recent plantings have some of these same varieties, 
l)ut there is a tendency to plant the earlier-hearing kinds. 

Rented orchards. — Lietween. twent_\- and twenty-five per cent of the 
orchards are rented, ddie four-year average \\c\i\ ^>i those managed by 
the owner has been 210 bushels ; of those managed by renters, 174 bushels. 

Orchard rciioratioji. — Nearly all of the orchards have been badly neg- 
lected, bnl during the ])ast few years a large ])art of them have received 
more attention. P'ourteen per cent liave l)een distinctly renovated during 
the past ten years. 

r///(/,<^'(' (///(/ yields. — Twenty per cent ha\'e been tilled five years or 
more : 44 |)er cent have been in sod at least five wars : the others have 
been tilled j)art of the time. Thirt_\' ])er cent were tilled in 1903. 

The fonr-\ear-average yields have l)een : Tilled every year for at 
least five \ cars, 2()() bushels ; tilled most xears, 22() bushels ; sod most 
\ears. 202 bushels; sod at least five \ears, 148 btisluTs. Or the average 
xield of those that are regularly tilled is 80 per cent above that of those 
regularly in sod. .A part of this dilTerence is duv to tillage and a part is 
due to the fact that the man who tills his orchard is likely to give it 
improved care in other res]X'cts. Taking otd)' those orchards that are 
otherwise wh-II cared for, the difiference is reduced to 35 per cent in favor 
of tillage, the four-ycar-average yields being: Tilled every year, 271 
bushels; tilled most \ears, 245; sod most vcars, 2or) ; sod every year, 200. 

Of the various methods of sod treatment, pasturing with hogs or sheep 



^Twelftli Census Report. 

356 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County. New York. 357 

gave better yields tlian not pasturing or pasturing- with cattle or horses ; 
but none of the methods of sod treatment equalled tillage in average 
' yields. A few sod orchards _are among the best producers, but the 
average is much below that of the tilled ones. Liberal applications of 
barnyard manure reduce the need of tillage. 

Very many orchards are in need of more growth in order to place the 
trees in a vigorous condition. Tillage is usually the cheapest and most 
efTective way of producing this. Ikirnyard manure may also be needed. 

Fcrfilicafion and yields. — ( )ne-thir(l of the orchards received no fer- 
tilization of any kind. The other two-thirds received more or less manure. 
Probably less than half received enough of anything so as to be classed as 
fertilized. Commercial fertilizers have been used in about twelve per 
cent and green manure (cover-crops) in about the same area. 

The average yield for 1902 and 1903 of fertilized orchards was 257 
bushels ; for unfertilized it was 202 bushels. 

A few men have shii)ped in manure from lUififalo. Some have found 
that they can profitably buy cattle for winter-feeding, and thus secure 
manure. 

CoTcr-crops. — C )n most of the soils, humus is needed more than mere 
plant-food. Ilarnyard manure or cover-crops usually give better results 
than comm,ercial fertilizers. 

Cover-crops were grown in eight per cent of the orchards in 1903. 
Buckwheat is the most commonly used. Crimson clover, red clover, rye, 
large clover, alfalfa, peas and oats, and vetch are also grown. 

Pruning. — The ultimate death of most trees is due to neglect of pruning 
coupled with a t\pe of priming that is worse than neglect. In sixteen 
per cent of the orchards, stubs from two to twelve inches long were left. 
Paint is rarely used on wounds. This treatment causes the trunks to 
deca\- anrl results in a broken tree. 

The important points in pruning are: (i) The limbs should be cut 

close to the trunk. (2) Large limbs should not be removed without 

cause. (3) Paint should be used on large wounds. (4) Pruning should 

. be done every year rather than give the occasional "thorough trimming." 

Spraying. — -Thirty-three per cent of the orchards are seldom or never 
sprayed ; 41 per cent were spra\ ed in 1903. 

Spraying gives less profit when fruit is grown for evaporating than 
when grown to barrel. In 1903 the damages from insects and fungi were 
small, but in this year the sprayed orchards averaged 2y bushels per acre 



358 Bulletin 226. 

above the iinsprayed and averaged better in price. The average income 
per acre from sprayed orchards was $77.84; from unsprayed, $63. In 
many cases only one spraying was given. 

Distance bcticcoi frees. — A great loss is caused l)y the trees being too 
close together. When trees are too close, the lower limbs die and cause a 
loss not onl\ in the crop, Imt the dead limbs lead to decayed trunks. In 
43 per cent of the mature orchards the trees are 30 x 30 feet or less, the 
average distance being 31.6 feet. The four-year-average yields have been : 
Trees not over 30 x 30 feet, 186 bushels: 31 x 31 to 35 x 35 feet, 222 
bushels ; 36 x 36 to 40 x 40 feet, 229 bushels. 

If trees are too close: (i) They are not so healthy. (2) The fruit 
does not color well. (3) The trees have less bearing surface. (4) In- 
sects and fungi do more damage. (5) The cost of labor is greater. 

Orchards should be thinned as soon as the trees begin to interfere, 
before the lower limits have been killed. Thinning should ordinarily be 
accomplished by removing every other row diagonally, first having deter- 
mined which way will leave the largest number of sound trees. 

Age and yield. — The maximum yield in Wayne county seems to come 
at 44 years after planting. This age will doubtless be greater in the future, 
for good care seems to give a greater gain in the longevity of the trees 
than in the yearly yield. 

Some orchards planted nearly a century ago are still profitable, but 
a large numl)er of the neglected orchards that were planted about 
fortv years ago will be of little value in twenty years. In the north 
part of the county, some }-oung orchards are being planted to meet this 
contingency. 

Drainage f^rohlems. — About eight per cent of the orchards need drain- 
age throughout. Thirty per cent need drainage in part of their area. 
The greatest loss from poor drainage is not in the damage to entire 
orchards, but in the small undrained places that occur in many orchards. 

Fifty-four orchards in Walworth township were reported as need- 
ing drainage, ddicse gave 42 bushels less yield per acre than the 
average of the township. 

Poor drainage not only afl^ects the vigor of the tree directlx', but it 
encourages canker, collar rot, etc. Land that is well drained for grain 
crops may not be well drained for. apples. 

Soils. — The loamy soils are the best for apple production, but good 
apple crops arc grown on quite diversified soils. The treatment that the 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 359 

orchard receives is far more important than the kind of soil. This 
treatment must vary to some extent with the type of soil. A good 
apple soil in Wayne county may be said to be one that is well drained 
and deep. 

Site and aspect. — The elevation above the surrounding country does not 
have a marked effect on the yield. 

The easterly slopes give considerably better yields than the westerly, 
probably owing to the strong west winds. 

Enciiiies. — The most serious enemies of the apple are the scab fungus 
and the codlin-moth. Both of these can be controlled by spraying. 

The collar rot or King disease is a rot that kills the bark at the sur- 
face of the ground. It is worst on Kings, attacking nearly all the 
mature trees. It is also bad on the Spitzenburg and occurs to some 
extent on all xarieties. It is usuallv worst on poorly drained soil. 
Little can be done except to treat the wounds as any wound should 
be treated. But the trouble can be avoided by planting hardy stocks, as 
the Spy, and top- working to King. If this is done, the trouble furnishes 
no reason whatever for abandoning the King apple. 

Canker is a disease attacking the limbs. It is doing considerable 
damage in one-fifth of the orchards of the county. If the trees had 
been well cared for, it would seldom have seciu'ed a foothold, except 
in the Twent}' Ounce. It can be overcome, except in extreme cases, 
by pruning out the diseased limbs, spraying the limbs with Ikordeaux 
mixture, and, most important c:»f all, putting the trees in a healthy 
growing condition. 

Evaporating apples. — Wayne county is the home of the apple-evap- 
orating industry. The proportion of the crop that is evaporated varies 
from year to year, but averages about seventy-five per cent. Some 
growers pick the best a])ples to barrel, others shake off the entire crop 
for evaporating. In 1902 the entire crop was thus shaken from the trees 
in 45 per cent of the orchard area. A much greater profit would usually 
be made if the orchard were so managed as to produce a realh' No. i 
apple, and if more of these were then sold in barrels. 

Yields. — The average yields per acre for mature orchards have been : 
1900, 252 bushels: 1901, 34 bushels: 1902. 222 bushels. 

lueoine per acre. — The gross average incomes per acre from mature 
trees have been: 1900, $37.80; 1901, $14.28: 1902, $48.18. 



COXDENSED CONC-EUSIOX. 

Tillage, ferlilizalion, iiruning aiul s]H'a} iiii^ arc {he chief factors 
that enter into good care ejf an orchard. ( )n(.' or more of these may 
sometimes be omitted or jjoorly done without any serious results. 
To some extent tillage may replace fertilizers, or vice versa. A thrifty 
orchard may resist the attacks of disease. Some years there -aw few 
insects or fungi, so that spraying is not so much needed. A farmer fre- 
([uently gets good results from some one of these factors and becomes 
so impressed with its importance that he makes a holjl))' of it. to the 
exclusit)n of all the others. Hut the most successful ap])Ie-grower is the 
man who kee])s a ])roi)cr balance between all four agencies and docs not 
expect good care in one resjiect to make up for neglect in other ways. 
1 here is not a reconniiiendation in this rejjort that has not been success- 
fully carried out by some growers; but few men have given attention to 
all the ([uestions. though some of the most successful have come very 
near to doing so. 

lint these factors are not all. The successful man must stu<ly ; he 
must learn something of the life ])rocesses of the a])])le-tree ; he must 
know the most serious insect and fungous diseases, and why certain 
treatment is effective in combating them: he must kn(JW something of 
the drainage, humus and other soil iiroblems. 

.\() set of rules can co\er all these jxiints. The apple-grower must 
go into the orchard and get accpiainted with his trees. As one farmer 
expressed it, he must go into the orchard occasionail\' and say to his 
trees, " Good morning! Is there anything that \ou woidd like to-day.''"" 
There are man\' mcDre or less successful farmers who ne\'er really see 
the a])ple-tret' — they see otdy the crop. Any treatment that will 
tem|)orarily increase the crop seems to them to lie good, but this very 
treatment may Ijc destroying tlie ])rospects for future cro])S. 

.\or is success in orchartling wludly (le])endent on a large crop. 
There is a Ijtisiness side to the (piestion. Does it i)ay to grow cheaj) 
ap])les to be evaporated or to be sold at the lowest market ])rice, or 
would it ])a\- better to grow a first-class article that costs m<:»re and 
then commands the highest price? A few men in each county are 
known as growers of good apples. Some other men grow just as 
good apples and yet have no reputation. Sometimes it is because 

360 



An Apple Orciiaud Srux'i-A' of Waynt. County. New York. 361 

their '■ firsts " and "sccoiuls "' all i^et into one barrel, sometimes it is 
because the growers are not known. The grower of good apples should 
establish a business reputation that will bring buyers to him antl make 
a competition for his product. 

Last of all, let me urge the advisability of keeping an account with 
the orchard and with the other important crops (as shown on page 297). 
See which crops really |)ay. If the a])ple orchard proves to be the most 
profitable croj). then give it first attention. 

BULLETINS FOR APPLE-GROWERS. 

The most progressive fruit-grower studies his business not only in his 
own orchard but in every way possible. To keep abreast of the progress 
made in orchartl management he must know what other orchardists are 
doing and must be familiar with the results of ex]X'riment station work. 
The following are a few of the many free bulletins that are available to 
New York farmers, so long as the issues remain in print. 

The following Indletins are sent free to residents of \ew York on 
application to the Cornell Cniversity Agricultural Experiment Station, 
Ithaca, N. Y.: 

Bulletin y^,. The Cultivation of Orchards. 
93. The Cigar Case-Bearer. 

142. The Codling-Moth. 

153. Impressions of iM-uit-Cjrowing Industries. 

155. The wSan Jose Scale. 

170. Tent Caterpillars. 

198. Orchard Cover-Crops. 

207. Pink Rot. an Attendant of Apple-Scab. 

214. The Ribbed Cocoon-]\Iaker of the .\]^])le. 

216. S|)raving for \\\V\ ^lustard and the Dust Spray. 

217. Spray Calendar. 

Bulletins in the following list are sent free to residents of New York 
on application to the New York Agricultural Experiment Station. 
Geneva, N. Y. : 
Bulletin 122. The Pistol Case-Bearer. 

163, 185. The New York Apple-Tree Canker. 

167. h Fruit Disease .Survey of the Hudson \'alley in 1899. 

170. Diseases Injurious to Fruits. 



362 BuLLirriN 226. 

Bulletin iQi. A Fruit Disease Survey of Western New York in 1900. 
lyO. Spraying in Bloom. 
220. Two L'nusual 'frouljles of Ap]:)le Foliat^'e : Frost Blisters; 

and SpottiiiiQ' and Dropping of Leaves Caused by 

SiJraying. 
235. Two Decays of Stored Apples. 
23Q. Thinning- Apples. 
248. New York .Apples in Storage. 

258. A Study of the Chemistry of IIome-Made Cider \'inegar. 
193, 194. 202. 209, 213, 228. San jose Scale. 

Publications sent free on application to the Secretar\' of .Vgriculture, 
Washington. D. C. : 

Soil .Snrvey of the Lyons Area. .\ew \'ork. 
Extract from the Yearbook for upi. 

230. Commercial Apple ( )rcharding. 
Extract from the N'carliook for i()02. 

2()(). Top-Working (Orchard Trees. 
Extract from the \'earbook for i<)<\v 

317. Relation of Cold Storage to C"ommercial Apple (~)rcharding. 

I'liniicrs' Biillcfiits. 

I'ulletin 113. The Apple, and How t(j Grow It. 

127. Important In.secticides : Directions for their Preparation 

and Cse. 
14O. Insecticides and h'ungicides : Chemical Composition and 

h^llectiveness of Certain Preparati(jns. 
]()]. Practical .Suggestions for h'ruit ( irowers. 
181. Pruning. 

187. Drainage of h\irm Lands. 
208. \ arieties of b'ruit Recommended for Planting. 



PART II. 

Geology of Wayne County, 
New York. 

W. E. McCOURT. 




A charactcrislic IVayiic county landscape. 



CONTENTS. 



Page. 

FOREWORD 366 

I ntroduction 367 

Topography 367 

Stratigraphy ?,70 

Medina sandstone 370 

CHnton group 37^ 

Niagara group 374 

Salina group 374 

CHmate 374 

Geological history of the region 37^ 

Soil types 381 

Stony soils 381 

Gravelly soils 2,^i 

Sandy soils 387 

Loam soils 388 

Clay soils 388 

Muck 389 

Features of glacial geology ; 390 

Till covering 390 

Drumlins 39^ 

Form 39^ 

Composition 397 

Origin 399 

Drumlinoids 399 

Kame areas 400 

Eskers 400 

Overwash areas 404 

Present lake shore 400 

Ridge (old lake shore ) 409 

North of ridge (old lake bottom ) 410 



FOREWORD. 



It seemed important at the outset of this new oroliard enterprise that 
a study of the geology of the area involved should accompan} the exam- 
ination of the orchards. This part of the investigation was placed in 
charge of Mr. W. E. McCourt, Fellow in the Department of Geology, and 
prosecuted I)\' him with vigor and intelligence. 

The salient features of the geology of the region are ])rescnted in the 
following pages. 

While it is probable that in making future studies of orcharding 

regions we shall not find it necessary to separate the geology from the 

soil studies, yet I am ])leased in this instance t(^ supplement Mr. Warren's 

admirable report with such an eminently satisfactory review of a subject 

generally fundamental and essential. 

John Craic 

Professor of Horticulture, Cornell Unk'ersity. 



INTRODUCTION. 

The field-work extended over two months (huing- the snmnier of 1903. 
Much detail must, then, be omitted from this report because of the extent 
of the area examined and the briefness of the time occupied in studying it. 
Acknowledgment is due Mr. G. F. Warren of the Cornell University 
College of Agriculture for some of the photographs. I am indebted to 
Prof. J. A. Bonesteel of the Bureau of Soils for reading the manuscript, 
and I am especially indebted to Prof. R. S. Tarr of Cornell University, 
whose kindly suggestions and criticisms have been a great help in the 
work. The general bearing of the survey in its application to apple- 
growing was directed by Professor John Craig, of the Department of 
Horticulture. 

TOPOGRAPHY. 

Wayne county is a part of what is technically called the Lake Plain, 
wdiich rises from a level of 247 feet at the lake shore to 580 feet at the 
escarpment of the Helderberg limestone farther south. Wayne county is 
about 34 miles in length and averages 18 miles in width, the eastern 
part being 22 and the western 14 miles. It has been said that the area 
is part of the Lake Plain, with a gradual rise from north to south. 
This, however, is not a continuous rise, for the topography for the most 
part is broken up into remarkably parallel hills. These hills are what 
geologists call drumlins. A drumlin is a symmetrical hill made up 
of compact till, this till being a deposit formed by a great ice sheet 
which at one time covered that section. The coming of this great mass 
of ice and its effects will be discussed in a later paragraph. The section 
is a most interesting one, for it lies in this great drumlin belt of New 
York State, thus furnishing to the student of glacial geology ample oppor- 
tunity to study one of the most interesting and much-discussed prob- 
lems in his subject. 

From Union Hill to .Sodus, at an approximate distance of from four 
to five miles from the lake shore, is an almost continuous gravel ridge 
upon which the Ridge road is built and along which the tracks of the 
Rochester and Sodus r)ay Electric Railway Company are laid. North of 
this ridge the topography is quite level. South, however, it is broken up 
into the dnnnlins. Fig. too is a photograph taken from the Rome, Water- 
town and Ogdensburg Railroad at Ontario Center, and shows the level- 

367 



^68 



Bulletin 226. Geology. 




An Apple Orchard Survry of Wavnk County, Ni':w York. T,f>(.) 

ness of the country north of the ridge. Fig. loi, taken west of Marion, 
shows the hilly or drunilin country south of the ridge. The central part 
of the county is cjuite level, as is shown in Fig. 120. which was taken 
southwest of Rose. To the east again we find the drunilins. 

The usual boldness of the lake shore is l)roken l)y four bays — Blind 
Sodus, Port, East and Great Sodus. (Ireat Sodus liay, situated a little 
to the east of the center of the county, has a length of about three miles 
and ani average width of al)out two, and contains three islands — Eagle, 
Little and Long. This bay is almost closed by a sandbar (Fig. 141). 
The other three bays are entirely closed by bars. 

Extending across the southern end of the county is an old river-course, 
once the bed of an outflow of a glacial lake formed when the ice, which 




Fig. lor. — p'iezv near Marion^ lookiiii^ south, to ih'Ji^ ilic rough topography soutli 

of the ridge, 

at one time covered the northeastern portion of our country, was 
retreating. 

There is only one river of any considerable size in the county, and it 
flows in a winding course across the southern part. It is called 
Ganarauga or Mud Creek until it joins the outlet of Canandaigua 
lake, when it becomes the Clyde river. It unites with the outlets of 
Seneca and Cayuga lakes at Montezuma, then assuming the name of the 
Seneca river. After draining Owasco, Skaneateles and Onondaga lakes 
it joins the outlet of Oneida lake to form the Oswego river, takes a north- 
erly course and empties into Lake Ontario. All the other streams are 
small, with the di\ ide occurring south of the ridge. 

Small marshes are numerous between the hills and bordering some 
of the streams. The Montezuma marshes 'cover al)out ten square miles 
in the southeastern portion of the county. 



370 Bulletin 226. Geology. 

STRATKiRAPHY. 

The rocks underlying- the area and outcropping at various places are 
all of the Silurian system. Rock may be said to be close to the surface 
north of the ridge and for a distance of one or two miles south. In the 
drumlin region, however, the material covering the rock, which is called 
drift, is thick: Init bed-rock is found close to the surface m some of the 
lowland regions. 

The following table shows the kind of formations found in the 
count}'. I licsc will ])v describt-d in later sections. 

( )non(laga or Salina grou]i. ... .Shales and gypsum beds. 

Niagara group Shales and liiuestone. 

Silurian Clinton grou]) Shales and limestone contain- 

Period 1 ing bed of fossiliferous 

iron ore. 

.Medina group .Sandstone. 

Fig. 102 is a photograph of a ])ortion of the Xew York State geologic 
map, showing the general relations of the underl\ing rocks in Wayne 
county. These are all of sedimentar\' origin. Sedimentar\- rocks are 
laid down in a horizontal position, one 1a\er on top of the other, but by 
later disturbances they may be tiltetl or folded. The reason for this suc- 
cession of rock outcrops is that these rocks have been gentl\' tilted in a 
southerly direction and also have been ])laned off diagonally. 

The hatched portion bordering the lake shore represents the extent of 
the oldest beds — the Medina sandstone; the darker ])ortion south of it, 
the (dinton series: the lighter succeeding portion, the Niagara series, 
and the grayish area, the Salina series. 

Medina S.andstone. 

These sandstones are red or variegated and occur in a narrow band 
bordering the shore of the lake, widening out farther west into a broader 
band. They are exposed in some places along the lake front, although 
there are no cliffs of rock. The color of the sandstone in some places is 
of a greenish-gray. This is probably dtie to the fact that " the coloring 
matter is less diffused or the deoxidizing effect has been more efficient."* 

A rather interesting sight in the northern part of the county is the itum- 
ber of schoolhouses and dwellings built of cobbles of Medina sandstone. 

*Hall. Geology of the Fourtli District, N. Y. 1S4J, p. 42. 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 371 




V7^ 



I')L'lli:tin 226. (i!iOL(x;Y, 





l.« '" 'X '* 



Pi^ 10^,— Sloiic-cnishcr in tosilion lo iiniui u^. lor roml iinilcnal. stuiics coilcctca 

from fhc glacial drift. 




Fjg. 104.— Overburden of shale, liiiieslone and drift in iron-z^'orking at Unnn.u. 



An Apple Orchard Smrvry of Wavnf. County, Nrw York. 373 



These cobbles vary from three to five inches in cHamctcr and were col- 
lected along the lake shore, which is thickly strewn with them. 

A few houses of 
this kind have been 
built from the cob- 
bles collected from 
the glacial drift ; but 
these stones are used 
for the most part 
for fences, or arc 
ground up for road 
material. V'lg. 103 



shows a 
crusher. 



stone- 




FiG. 105. — Quarry in Nicmara liiiu'slonc, tzuo miles south 
of Sodiis Center. 



Clinton Group. 
This group is made 
up of clay rocks, or 
shales, and lime- 
stones. The shales 

are of a greenish-gray color, thinly l)edded, more green when fresh 
and more gra\- when weathered. The limestone is of two kinds, 
a thinly bedded impure variety and a crystalline and mure massive 

variety. Tliese beds 
occur in no regular 
order of succession, 
but in between layers 
of shale we find beds 
and layers of lime- 
stone. 

Abont two miles 
from the lake, and 
running approxi- 
mately parallel to it, 
is a thin bed of fos- 
siliferous hematite, 
known as the Clinton 
iron ore. There is an iron mine about one mile north of Ontario. Here 
the ore bed is covered bv an overburdtMi of thinl\- bedded shale and 




Fig. 106. — Kiln connected zvilli quarry in Fig. 105. 



374 Bulletin 226. Gi-.ology. 

limestone ten feet thick, which is in turn overhiin by drift to a depth 
of about six feet. b^ig". 104 shows this overburden at Ontario. The 
bed itself is from two to three feet thick and the ore contains about 
33-35 per cent iron. The ore bed at W'olcott is of this same formation. 

Nl\g.\ra riRoui'. 

This is made up of two groups; a lower one of thinly bedded shales 
and impure limestones and an upper one of hard crystalline limestone. 
West of the county the limestone stands out as an escarpment or ridge, 
because of its resistance to the wearing effect of weathering and 
erosion, but in the county this escarjnnent is not pronounced. Tlie 
shales and limestones are of a bluish or grayish color, depending upon 
the amount of weathering they have undergone. Where the lime- 
stone outcrops, the rock is much weathered and contains many 
cavities due to this weathering. . The line of outcro]> is marked 
throughout the count}- by a series of (puirries and lime-kilns. Figs. 
105 and ^o() show a (piarrx- and kiln located al)out two miles south of 
Sodus Center. The limestone is also used to a limited extent for firestones 
and building stones. 

Salina Ckoiti'. 

This group is made up of shales, sonu' limestone and gypsiferous 
beds. The shale is of a grayish or reddish color, which in many 
places has weathered to a stickv gravish or rrddish clav. Gypseous 
marl, according to Mall, is found in ])laces along the Erie canal ; it 
usually contains a lair amount of lime, but in manv places it is clayey. 
Salt springs are found bordering the Montezuma marshes, especially 
at the: western end.* 

CLIMATE. 

Detailed study cannot be expected in a ])aper of this kind, but we 
can, frcMU \arious sources, collect facts which show that climate is of 
great inthience in fruit growing. 

The lake is no unim])ortant agency in modifying climate. R. S. 
Tarr, in his ( leological History of the Chautau(|ua Graj^e Beltf says of 
Lake Erie, and the same will hold true for Lake Ontario: "hi the 



"•"Geology of the Fourth District, New York. 1842. 
tRulI. 109, Cornell Agr. Exp. Station, i.SqO, j). ijo. 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 375 

spring, by reason of the low temperature of its waters, it holds back 
the vegetation and this tends to keep it behind the ordinary frosts. 
Its very presence checks frost by moderating the temperature of the 
neighboring air. In the smnmer the water tends to c<ool the air of the 
day and to keep the nocturnal temperature fairly high. During the 
fall the water has been warmed by the summer sun, and the iniluence 
of this warm body of water lengthens the growing season and tends 
to keep off the early autumn frosts." 

E. T. Turner, in his chapter on the climate of X'ew ^'ork in Tarr's 
Physical Cieography of New York State,''' says, "" The surface of Lake 
Ontario averages from 10 to 15 degrees warmer in winter and cooler 
in summer than the adjacent land areas; hence the northwesterly 
Avinds of winter in passing over the lake are raised to a temperature 
considerably higher than obtains on the north shore. This intiuence 
is felt throughout the portions of the State lying to the south and east 
of the lakes, although decreasing rapidly as we proceed inland." Con- 
tinuing, he says, " The southern shore of I^ake ( )ntario has an average 
midwinter temperature of 5 degrees higher than that of the northern 
shore. It thus becomes possible in our lake district to raise i)eaches, 
grapes and the tender vegetation which can scarcely exist in the 
adjacent portions of Canada, nor even in the southern interior of the 
State." 

Following is a table compiled from the climate and crop report of 
the New' York section of the Weather lUireau, showing dates of 
killing frosts in 1902: 

KiLi.iNc; Frosts. 



LOCATION. 


Last of spring-. 


First of fall. 


Lyons 


May II 
May 10 
May II 
May 14 


October 17 


Oswego 


October 17 


Rochester 


October 10 


Wolcott 


October 10 







Killing frosts rarely occur before the middle of October, and the 
latest date in the spring is somewhere about May 10. 

The stations in the talde are taken as fairly illustrative of the 
climatological conditions of the county, for Lyons represents the in- 



*N. Y. 1902, pp. ,338, 350. 



^7^ 



Bulletin 226. Geology, 



land area ; Oswego about fifteen miles east of the county and Rochester 
about fifteen miles west, both represent the lake conditions ; Wolcott, 
too. in the northeastern portion of the county is truly representative. 
Tiie following table was also compiled from the Climate and Crop 
Report for 1902, and shows the average monthly and annual tempera- 
ture and precipitation for Lyons, Oswego and Rochester: 

Mean Monthly and Anni'ai. Tempkrau're anh Precipttation. 



MONTIL 



Lyons. 



Temp. 



Prec. in 

inches. 



Oswego. 



Temp. 



Prec. in 
inches. 



January . . 
Februar\' . 
March..". . 

.A.pril 

May 

lune 

July 

August . . . 
Septeml)c'r 
October . . 
November 
December 
Year 



_>.6i 

2.62 
1.49 

3.15 
3.21 

2,-2'J 

3-57 

2.40 

2.92 

2.76 

33- 13 



24-3 
24.6 
.^0.4 

4-3.3 
54 
64.0 
69.0 
68.2 
61.7 
50.0 
38. 5 
29.4 
46.4 



2.97 

^■54 
2.62 
2.08 
2.83 
3 40 
31^ 
2.64 



Rochester. 



Temp. 

°K. 



-33-9 
24.4 

30.3 
43-5 
56.3 
66.4 
70.4 
68.4 
62.0 
49.6 

37-4 
28.6 
46.8 



Prec. in 
inches. 



3-14 
2. 7}, 
2.86 
2.48 
3 ■ .M 

3-2-2 

2.97 

3.06 

-2.34 
2.92 

2.85 

2.gi 
34 -82 



Tliis tiible explains itself. W'hiK' tlu' .-tmounl of rainfall is fairly uniform there 
was greater i)recii)itati(.>n during May, June, July and August. 

GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE REGION. 



At one time tlic northwestern portion of otir cotmtry, besides parts 
of Euro})o, was covered by a great mass of ice, a \ast continental 
glacier, hundreds of feet thick, in some places even reaching a depth 
of oxer a mile. Why it came need not concern us, for the fact that 
it did come is a geological fact. Lal)rador was the center of the ice 
formation of northeastern America. Local glaciers in the Laurentian 
motmtains tmited to form a much-lolied ice sheet. The motion of the 
ice was due to a constant accunuilation at one center. Before the ice 
came the topograpln- was in its larger feattu'cs the same as it is now, 
but the minor features were much modit'u'd and are now much different 
from what thev were. The mass of ice advancing and retreating over 
the countrv formed deposits, changed the drainage in some places, caused 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Wavxe County. Xew York. 377 

the formation of lakes in sonic places and probably in places did much 
work of erosion. 

l)y a change in climatological conditions the ice began to retreat 
" rather rapidly but intermittently." At its farthest point of extension, 
which was on a line through New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio, etc., a 
terminal moraine was built by the accumulation of material carried 
by the ice and dropped at its melting front, thus forming an irregular 
deposit of hills and mounds of glacial drift. In its retreat, if the ice 
stopped long enough, other morainal deposits were formed. 

The ice, wearing off fragments from the rock and soil over which it 
passed, dragged them along under itself, carried some in itself and 
])erhaps on itself, lliese fragments in the lower part were constantly 
undergoing a grinding action. Some were ground to a flour, others 
were scratched and had their corners rounded. If you look into a 
cut in a drumlin or even examine the stones in the fields you will find 
these scratched and rounded stones. When the ice began to melt back 
some of this material was dropped, thus forming a covering or layer of 
till, or boulder clay as it is called. The drumlins arc made up of this 
till. They were probably formed by an unequal deposition of the material 
because of variations in ice currents, (^r perhaps they were formed by 
the erosion of a la\er of till caused l)y a readvance of the ice. 

Streams flowed on the ice, in tunnels in the ice and under the ice. 
These carried sediment, grinding and wearing it to form gravel and 
sand. Deposition in these streams and melting of the ice would form what 
are known as eskers. or ridges of gravel and sand. A stream issuing froni 
the ice to spread out over a more or less level area would form an over- 
wash plain. The dei)osit formed by the issue of a subglacial stream 
into a lake might form a hill-like irregular deposit of stratified material 
called kames. Or these might have been formed in caverns imder the 
ice or by water falling down through crevasses in the ice and deposit- 
ing its burden. 

As the ice kept retreating great changes took place in the drainage. 
North-flowing streams were blocked against the ice-wall, and this 
water combined with the water from the melting ice formed marginal 
lakes. Valleys w^ere filled with drift, new stream courses were formed, 
resulting in the cutting of gorges and the formation of waterfalls. 

The histor}- of the Great Lakes is an interesting and exhaustive study 
in itself. A brief summary will not be out of place here, for in our 



37<^ 



I'ULLETIX 226. ■ (ilCOLOGY, 



rcg:ion we have a very good opportunity for a study of one of the stages 
in the development, namely, the presence of the ridge which has been 
mentioned before and which marks the shore of a glacial lake. The Great 




Fig. 107. — Tayltu-'s uiaf>, sltojciiiii Lake Ali^Diiqiiiii cniffying into 
LaLc Iroquois tlirougJt the Trent river. 









, !!.. 




t'' 


- 


























-^— '^•''' ■' ■ ' ' 












-— "- '^ 




"^. .'■y.-'f '•.■ ' 




























/:;..-•■ 










AOli!.) 


-lOACI. ■ 


■/■:■■ 


xJ" 














/^ 
















_A ' 
















// ■■■ "*■/.-.,-. 


















o-y-'. 


,„,., y-.V/'/.v. , 


,,,.-uu ''"■^"■■" 


'.,V 

"V- 









Fig, vo'!>.—L,ilbeyt's inaf of Lake Iroquois. 

Lakes probably did not exist before the ice came — before that period 
which is called the glacial period ; but their site was occupied by stream 
channels. 



An Apple Orchard Surx'ky of Wayne County, New York. 



379 



Along- the ice front, as it was retreating, small lakes were formed, the 
water being supplied by the damming up of north-tiowing streams, the 
melting of the ice and the precipitation. These united to form large 
lakes. When the ice stood across the northern part of the State there 
was a large glacial lake, called Lake Newberry, in front of it. with an 
outflow over the 
Seneca Lake divide. 
The ice retreated 
farther and the lake 
became (juite exten- 
sive, its level was 
lowered and the 
waters found an out- 
flow past Chicago. 
This lake is known 
as Lake Warren. 
The farther with- 
drawal of the ice 



_em: 




Fig. 109. — Cliff cut by fciiiforary lake outfloiv. (Tzvo 
miles east of Newark) . 



and the continued withdrawal produced other changes. "" With the 
uncovering of the Mohawk, the Lake Warren waters flowed eastward 
and the level fell, until finally the entire Erie basin was uncovered. 
Niagara river then began to flow when the water level in the ( )ntario 

basin fell below that 
of Lake Erie. The 
outflow of the upper 
Great Lakes was 
t h c n , as no w . 
thrnugh the Detroit- 
Lake St. Clair chan- 
nel into Lake Erie ; 
and the Niagara 
river was then, as 
now, a large river. 
The three upper lakes were at that time united to form Lake Algonc[uin ; 
but, as the ice front withdrew still farther, it uncovered the Trent River 
valley, which, because of the northward depression of the land at that 
time, was then lower than the Detroit channel, so that the waters of Lake 
Algonquin were then withdrawn from the Lake Erie overflow, and the 




Fig. 1 10. — Delta formed along temporary lake outHozv 
(east of Newark). 



.V'^o 



Bulletin 226. ( 'ii'.olocv. 



size of Niag^ara was greatl)- retluced thercl)y ( l-'ig. 107). The waters of 
the upper (Ireat Lakes then tiowed direcllx into the expanded Ontario 
without iirst passing- through Erie. The exjjanded Ontario has been 
called glacial Lake lro(|uois and its overHfnv was through the jMohawk, 
because the St. Lawrence outflow was still ice-tilled.""" Fig'. 108 shows 
this Lake Irotpiois as niajjped by ( iilbert. It was during this stage that 
the grave ridge througli the county was built along the shore line ttf the 
ex])anded lake. l)e])osits of silt and clay were also formed in this lake, 
in which some of the drumhns rose as islands. 

lust before this stage, however, tem])orar_\' channels formed outlets 
from the western lakes to the Mohawk. One of these runs across the 




JviG. i I I. — Taylor's ma!^ of tJic deal Lakes n'liilc the sea c.vtciidcd 
iif into Ontario. 

southern end of the county, bdg. 109 shows a cliff cut by the water, and 
Fig. no a small delta formed at that time. lunnher changes took place; 
with the farther retreat of the ice. Lake iro(|uois fell. At this time the 
land was (le])ressed in the northeast, and the sea encroached u])on the 
Lake ( )ntario basin, while the ui)per Creat [,akes found an outlet through 
the ( )ttawa river ( I'dg. ill). Then the land began to rise, and finally 
Lake < )ntari(> assumed its present level, ddiis history is based on the 
studv of the beaches formed by these various lakes during the various 
stages, by such men as Taylor, Si)encer, Newberry and Gilbert, the results 
of whose careful investigations can l)e taken as having well established 
these conclusions. 

*Tarr. Pliv Gccy. of N. ^^ State, p.-'^o. 



An Apple Orchard Surxev of Wayne County, New York. 381 

SOIL TYPES/'= 

The soil types in the county can be summed up under the following- 
headings : 

Stony soils. 

Gravelly soils. 

Sandy soils. 

Loam soils. 

Clay soils. 

Muck. 

This classification, althoug'h it differs from the ordinary classification 
of soil types, is adopted because more sim])le and somewhat suggestive 
of their origin. 

Stony Soils. 

This soil type is typically represented by what is known among 
geologists as till or boulder clay, namely an unassorted mass of clay, sand, 
gravel, stones ami boulders resulting from deposition from the ice (page 
'^J'/^. The soil is of a more or less clayey nature. The surface soil, how- 
ever, seems to be more of a sandy loam : but in the few cuts that were 
seen the subsoil is hard and clayey, being the t_\i)ical boulder clay. The 
natural sections along the lake shore im the northeastern part of the 
county show exceptionally well the character of this hard, compact 
boulder clay, for the action of the waves and rain have caused this com- 
pact drift to stand up in beautiful fantastic pinnacles and spires. Fig. 112 
is a photograph of one of these pinnacles in a drumlin three miles east 
of Sodus Ray. A more distant view is shown in Fig. 130. The soil con- 
tains numerous stones, some roimded, some angular and some scratched, 
showing the influence of ice action. The stones, which make up thirty- 
five to fifty per cent of the soil, are to a large extent local, that is, derived 
from the Silurian sandstone, shale and limestone, (hieiss and granite, 
brought b\' the ice from the north, are also found, and in some places 
are erratics of considerable size. From most of the farms, however, the 
stones have been picked and piled into heaps or built into fences. Some. 
too, are being crushed for road material. 

This soil type occupies by far the largest portion of the county, 
covering probably about half of the area. The soil areas throughout 



*This classification represent'- the geological method and is not that of the Bureau 
of Soils presented in Part r. 



382 Bulletin 226. Gi£Ologv. 

the county are quite complex, and no definite boundaries can be 
mapped, but there are general and typical areas which can be described. 
In general, this type occupies a l)elt extending across the county east 
to west, and from the ridge to the southern boundary. The north- 
eastern i)ortion oi the county is also occupied by scattered areas of 
this type, ^idie belt across the section is interrui)ted in the central 
portion south of Sodus Ray and extending down to Clyde by an area 



J'iG. 112. — Fiiiiiaclc uj boulder iUiy in dniinlin lluxc miles casl uj Sodus Bay. 

of other types coxering a sectitjn of al)oul fifteen or twenty square 
miles. There is also a stri]) of another t}pe following the general 
trend of the New ^'ork Central Railroad. The drumlins are included 
in this tyjK' ( I^'igs. 113 and 114). It must not be thought that this type 
covers exclusiveh' the area outlined, for there are small areas of muck 
between some of the hills and l^ordering some of the streams. Clay 
|)atches are common in some places, as also are sandy and gravelly 
areas. 



An Applf. Orchard Sur\kv of Wavxi-: County, Nfw York. 38.^ 

Grax'ellv Soils. 
The name given to this type is suggestive of its eharacter. It is. for 



the 



the most part, made up of gravel and sand. Just where to draw mv; 
Hne between gravel soils and sand soils is a difficult question, for one 




m 



m 




Fig. 113. — Stony soil. Druinlin four miles northeast of Wakvorth. 

grades into the other. The name gravelly soils has been given to the 
type which is obviously gravelly. The name sandy soils has been 
ascribed to that type which is entirely sandy or contains few pebbles. 
The pebbles in the gravelly type are rounded, showing that they have 




Fig. 114. — Stony soil. Drnmlin three miles west of Marion. 

been worn by water action. They are of the Silurian rocks with a large 
percentage of gneiss and granite, ranging in size from very small 
pebbles up to those three and four inches in diameter. The remark- 
able number of gravel pits throughout the county (Figs. 117. 134 and 
136) testify to the good quality of the sand and gravel which is used 



3^4 



Bulletin 226. Geology 



for road and building purposes. The areas are somewhat scattered 
and on the w hole do not add up to a very large amount. For con- 
\ enience ul description we may divide tliem into the following 



l^iG. 115. — Grai'cl soil. Oz'crzoasli plain I'a'o and a half miles z^'cst of Marion. 

classes: (,)\-erwash areas, kames and eskers, deposits on dnunlins, 

ridge and old stream bed. 

O'i'cn^'ush areas. — By an overwash area is meant a deposit of sand 

and gra\'el which has been formed l)y a stream issuing from the front 

of the ice and deposit- 
ing its burden on a 
more or less level 
area. Fig. 1 15 shows 
an overwash area two 
and one-half miles 
west of Marion. 
Another is found 
northeast of i^^iirville, 
and other smaller 
areas occur in scat- 
tered re.qions. These 
must have been the 
seat of deposition just 
at the close of the 

t,''lacial i)eriod when the ice was retreating. 

k'ojiics ami cslccrs. — A kame area is a collection of hummocky hills 

enclosing hollo\As and com])osed of stratified material, namely, sand 

and gravel. Fig. 135 shows such an area north of Palmyra. These 




Fic. J 16. — Gravel soil. Palinvra cskcr. 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Waynk Covntv, Nf.w York. 385 

areas are of small extent, the best developed one extending from Pal- 
myra north to Marion. These kame areas may have been formed in 
several different w^ays — in caverns under the ice, by water falling 
down through crev- 
asses and depositing" 
its sediment, or 
where streams from 
the ice issued into 
lakes. 

Eskers are closel} 
associated with 
kames. being com- 
posed of the same kind 
of material and prob- 
ably having 1 ) e e n 
formed by deposition 
from glacial streams 
under the thin edge 
of the ice. An esker 
is a winding ridge or 
collection of ridges 
to which the name 
serpent kame has also 
been applied. Two 
eskers have been 
studied ; one north of 
Palmyra and extend- 
ing for a distance of 
about five miles in a 
general northerly 
direction (Figs. ii() 
and 137) ; one four 
miles north of New- 
ark and extending for 
a distance of one mile 
(Fig. 138). 

Deposits oil dntmliiis. — Associated with the drundins are masses of 
stratified drift, usually occupying the lower sides or southern ends. 




/S 






S4v 






Fin. 117.— Gravel pit al Pcrcyvillc. 



386 



Bulletin 226. Geology 



These deposits on the sides are usually of a rounded, symmetrical shape, 
some of them having the appearance of being younger drumlins super- 
imposed on older ones, the only chief or vital difference being ni the 
nature of the composing material ; the " bumjjs " being composed of 
gravel and sand (Fig. 134), and the drumlins of boulder clay (Fig. 131). 
Fig. 134 shows a cut in one of these gravel areas on the side of a 




Fig. iiS.—Coiisolidalcd gnwcl from pit two miles iiortlmu^st of Lyons. 

drumlin two miles west of Maccdon Center. These associated de- 
posits will l)e considered in more detail in a later section of the report. 
Grarcl ridi^c. — This ridge is quite an uniciue feature in the county 
and is easily traced as far east as Sodus, where it turns south and 
becomes less distinct. At this point the exact line of construction is 
lost, for onlv patches of it can be found here and there, from which 
the general direction may be approximately determined. Fig. 108 shows 
Gilbert's interpretation. This ridge marks the shore line of glacial 



Ai\ Apple Orchaku Sirxev of Wavnic Counts', Nkw York. 387 

Lake Iroquois. 'I'hc material composing this ridge is quite similar 
to that in the present lake beach, although some clay is present owing 
to the weathering of the pebbles. 

Following the trend of the railroad through the southern part of the 
county A\x find some \vell-de\elo])e(l gravel areas. Northwest of 
Palm_\ra is an area embracing a few square miles. (Fig. 117.) This is 
being worked by the railroad. Newark is built on a large area of this 
gra\el. Fig. 1 18 shows some consolidated gra\el taken from a i)it two 
miles northwest of Lyons. This line of gravel areas marks the site of 
an old stream channel mentioned in a previous paragraph. 




i*"u,. ng. — Sandy soil. Tiko ihuls :>unia of Sodits Bay. 



SA^■I)^' Soils. 



This t\pe is Upicalh" a fiiie san<l. allhnugli in some ])laces there are 
some pebbles in the sand. riie areas, though scattered, are confined to 
the northern part of the countw Some of these areas are found north 
of ( )ntario, \\ illiamson lukI Sodus. In fact, scattered sandx- areas border 
man\- of the streams north of the ridge. Most of these areas are not 
free from pebbK's. These represent stream action, and deposition some- 
what like delta formations in the old Lake Iro<|uois. Just south and 
west of Sodus l'>av is quite an intensive area of this sand which is 
ver\- fine in texture, and contains very few, if any, stones. Fig. 
119 shows some hills of sand south of Sodus Ray. Idiese hills resemble 
dimes, but thev seem too level-toi)iX'd to be dunes, and the manner of 
stratification is not the kind which is finmd in duni'S. In sand dunes we 



'388 



BuiJ.ETiN 226. Geology 



arc likch' to find confused stratification due to wind deposition, but here 
tlie stratification is ln)rizontal. This tleposit is probably constructional, 
although erosion may have nuule tlie hills more ]^ronounced. It probably 
represents a deposit formed 1)\ water at the front of the ice. 

Loam Soils. 

The term loam sdil i> ;i ci im])rehensive term and conveys a somewhat 
wide meanin'g, emhraciui;- on the one hand a somewdiat sandy soil and 
ou the other a claxev soil, ddie amount of stones in the S(_)il also varies, 
some places are entirel\ free from stones and others contain as high as 
30-40 per cent. Xext to the stony soils this type covers the largest area 



pEIWpB^^I^!^^** 







I'll,, iju. — /..■..,:, , o-M ii..' >,.,;; w ...;,, ,,,,,u.. .i,.,n',,.^> -., ,., ji._.oi. 

in the countw being- w ell-develo]ied in places north of the ridge, in the 
northeastern portion of the count}' and especially in the region around 
Rose and Alton. In the latter area the soil is (|uite free from stones and 
<)ccui)i(.'s a K^el stretch of countr\. ( I' ig. 120.) In tlie other regions 
the soil contains an ai)])reciabk' amount of stones and occupies more 
rolling countrx. ddiis soil owes its origin to Lake lro(|uois. In the 
northern regions the lake waters were not very (|niet, hence the variations 
in texture of the soils. In the central region, however, which represents 
a l)a\' in the old lake', the water was more (|uiet, and hence we have the 
evenness of texture and freedom from stones. 



Cla'*' Sotl.s. 

This ty]:)c mav be subdix'ided into residual clays and sedimentary clays. 
TIk' residurd clav is a stickx reddish or gravish clay formed as a weather- 
ing product of the .Salina red and gra)' shales. Li some places the clay 



Ax Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 389 

can be seen gradino- into the shale. The areas are not vcr}' extensive, 
and they are found in patches in the southern jiart of the county. At 
places east of Newark, west of Newark and near Pahnyra are good 
examples of this residual clay. Fig. 121 is a view along the Erie canal 
where beds of this type are found. 

The sedimentary clay is of a brownish color, and in some places 
grades into the loam soil. The area occupied by this subtype is 
larger than that occupied by the residual clays. Northeast of Clvde 




Fig. 121. — Vic-To along Lnc canal where paUiics of residual clay arc found. 

is an area end)racing about se\en scpiare miles. Along the lake shore 
are patches of this sedimentary clay, especially in the northeastern 
portion of the county, llert' the lake has jiroduced natural sections 
which show the horizontal stratification of the clay. (Fig. 150.) This 
subtype was formed in the waters of Fake Iro([uois. 



Muck. 

The term muck is used to designate marshy, swampy and wet areas 
which, although for the most i>art scattered, in total reach to quite an 
acreage. The Montezuma marshes in the southeastern portion of the 



390 Bui-Lin'TX 22C\ GicoLonY. 

count_\- cover an area of ten square miles. Alontj^ the Clyde river is 
another extensive niarshx area, and others are found around Zurich, Joy, 
north of Wolcott and north of Lnoiis. C )ther smaller areas of marsh 
land are found horderins;" some of the streams and l)et\veen some of the 
drumlins. Ilesides these marsh\ areas there are many low. wet areas of 
black, cla_\ev or silty soil, which are found between some of the drumlins. 

MLVTl'RES OF GLACIAL. (lEOLOGY. 

Wayne county is especially interestint;- to the student of glacial 
geology, in that it shows man\' phenomena coimected with the great 
ice sheet wdiich at one time covered the northen nart of our country. 

Tii.i.-Co\1':rix(;. 

The term glacial drift !.•- ap^died to the aggregations of clay, boulders, 
sand and jjebbles forme(l directK' b\' ice action or b}' ice in connection 
with \\;Uer action. These are called respectivel\- unstratiiied and strati- 
tied drift. The mistratified drift includes the till sheet, flrumlins and 
moraines, and the stratilied drift includes kames, cskers, overwash plains, 
etc. These two classes are, howe\'er. not alwaxs distinct, for in an 
unstratihed mass we often find masses n\ stratified drift. The whole 
count\' is coAH'rrd with drift, either as direct deposits b\' ice and water 
or as deposits which have been worked over, so to sjieak, by some later 
action. 

ddu' till is t-om])act and firm, and the rock fragments it contains are 
usuall\- somewhat rounded and frecpiently polished and scratched. 
The tv])ical form of boulder clay is shown in iMg. 112. The distribution 
of till bears a close relation to the rate of movement of the ice, depending 
upon topogra])h\- and the amount of material dragged or carried by the 
ice. In some places this till reaches a de])tli of 100 feet, as in some of 
the liighest drumlins. ( l<"igs. I2_:;, 124 and 125.) In other places, espe- 
cialh- in the western and northern \ydvi of the coinitw iust south of the 
ridge this till is ver\- thin. (Fig. 122.) Wdien the ice moved over the 
countr\- it remo\-ed rock fragments from the surface and dragged them 
along with itself. When it retreated it left this mass of till or ground 
moraine as it is called. X'ariations in ice currt'uts and in the direction 
of ice-flow ])roduce(l variation.s in depth, and in some places caused an 
appearance of stratification. 



An Apple (Jrciiard Suk\'i-:v of WAVNii County, Xew York. 391 




E-s 



o 



392 



l5uLLi;ri.\ jj(). ( ii'.oi.or.Y. 



Drumlins. 

As has been said before, Wayne county lies in the drumhn area of 
New York State. A s^lance at the I'nitetl States Topographic sheets of 
this section of the State will Ije sutiicient to give one a view of the general 
art-a of this section, of which Wayne county forms no inconsiderable part. 
The drumlins are thickest in the central belt of the county, in the town- 
ships of Arcadia, Lyons, Palmyra and Marion. In Rose the_\' are almost 
totall\- absent, the level topogra])hy being broken only by a few " island 
forms." b'arther east, in Savannah and Cutler, they are again very 
thick. X(jrth, in Huron and WOlcult, they are not so thickly grouped. 
In the western and southern areas and in the section south of the rido'c 




i'lG. i_'3. — J ill ct'i'crut^: Uroiij^cd drniiilins. 

the\- are single rather than grouped. North of the ridge there are no 
drumlins ( I'dg. hh). ) I'igs. i J3 to 1 2(j show photograj^hs of grouped 
and single drumlins. 

A drnndin is a synnurlrical hill made up of compact till. Some. 
howe\er, contain lenses of stratihed drift. Tliev are wonderfully 
smooth and regular, usually with gently sloping rounded tops. Idle 
northern end, commonh', is steeper than the southern end and in all 
cases the long axis is parallel to the direction of the ice moveiuent. 
Drundins are found in our country in Xew York, Xe\\' F.ngland and 
Wisconsin. 

I'onii. — Idle druiulins are both single and grou])ed. but more often 
s/rouncil. ddiev \'arv in size (uiite considerablw Some are two-thirds 



An Ai'1'1.1-: Oiuiiaud Survey of Wavxe County, Xi'.w York. t,()^, 




394 



Bulletin 22C). (ikology. 



of a mile lon.q;, others arc much sliorter, even being so small as 300 
led. They vary in height from 25 to 200 feet aiul the proportion of 
length to breadth is usually as much as 3 to 1. Some are gently slop- 
ing, others steeply sloping; some high and narrow, others, low and 
flat (Figs. 124 to 128). The north slope is usually steeper than the 




Fi( 



-Xoi-lli (•;/(/ I'l (Irifiiiliii four utiles iinrth nf l\ihityri.i- 



.south slojje and the side slopes steeper than the north. There are 
clearly recognizable certain types of drumlins. A symmetrical type, 
called by Chamberlain a mammilar_\- or lenticular hill, is one in which 
the north and south slopes are similar, thus forming an o\'al, sym- 




I'U".. ] 2b. — Siilr slo/ic of dniniliu one utile norlli of Rose. 

I'K-trical hill. TIk- second tyjjc is one in which the north slope is 
slightly steeper than the S(nith slo])e. Wlu-n the southern end is long 
and drawn out, sometimes si) far that the exact termination cannot be 
distinguisheil, we ha\'e the ])re\ailing tyi)e of the \\'ayne County area. 
The fourth and last t\pe is one which is intermediate between the 



An Applf. C^i^ciiARO Si;r\f.v of \\'avnI': Coitnt^-, Ni:\v York. 3(}5 




Fig, 127. — Looking zvest at dfumlin liHo miles northeast of West Waluiorth. 




Fig. 128. — Long, loiv, flat dnimlin. 




Fig. 129. — Grouped dntmlins. 



'3'/' 



llrLIJ-lllX 22(\ ( il.Dl.OCN' 



sccuml and lliird. Tliis lias Ix/cii tiTiind llu' ladpole type In' a Cornell 
sludeiit because ol its reseiiihlanei' in a ladpole. In this there is a loni;- 
lail-like projeelioii hitched nn lo ihe Ixxly nl' the drumlin. There are 
^.onle modifications oi these types which are \\(jrtli_\ of mention. In 
some, tin- s\ninietry oi the drumlin is disiii^ured h\ a secondary, 
smaller hill mi the side or at the southern end. 1 his smaller hill is 
usualh- of uraxel and sand and was undouhtedlv lormetl after the 




l*"iG. i,?o. — JJ'ai'c-citt cliffs in dniniliii three miles east of Sodits Bay. 

lormatioii ol the drumlin. .Some drumlins lia\e peculiar and inter- 
esting" southern I'lidin^s: a kamy ending' is not infrecpient nor is an 
ending;' in ridi.;e-like ^raxtd deposits. lliese. too, were of later ori^'in 
than the drumlins. 

iiiuiiipc'il ifriiiJiHiis. — Fii^s. TOT. 123 an<l ^ 2() show, in a way, how the 
drumlins are ,L;'roiiped, hut a glance at the lopog'raphic ma]) will s^iv'C 
an idea of the complexity. With all that, however, the ^-rou])!]!;.;- is 
more complex than the ma]) shows. Tliev are ])laced side bv side, end 
to end and almost on to]) of each other. The onlv reqailaritx' is in the 



An Ari'LK ()iuii.\ki) SrK\i:^' of \\avxi-. C'ountv, \'|.;\v \'i)kk. 



M)7 



uniformity or parallelism of (lircclion, namely to the direetion of ice 
movement. Some of the drumlins, as in Fig. 109, show a scalloping or 
grooving of the tops and sides. In some cases these grooves are due 
to erosion, for after a rain one can see little rivulets wearing out these 
little hollows. In the large majority of cases, however, these grooves 
represent the original contour of the drumlin as it was formed or at 
least left after the ice disappeared. There seems to he a grouping of 
the drumlins into belts at right angles to the direction of ice move- 




FiG. 131. — Ncar-Z'iciu of ["iiuuuic in druiiiliit shuz^'ii in fig. 130. 

ment. The northern belt is made up of single druiulins of the len- 
ticular type; the second of thickly grouped drundins of the second 
tv])e mentioned in a former paragraph ; the third bell of the tadi)ole 
tvpe and the last belt of the type with the long-ilrawn-out southern 
ends. 

Coiiif'ositioit. — ddie material of which these drift hills are com|)Osed 
is the tvpical boulder cla\' containing somewduit rounded, scratched 
and polished stones. (Figs. 1 12. 130 and 131.) These stones are largely 
local, being Silurian rocks, the predoiuinance of each formation being 
diminished as the drumlins are fotmd farther south from the outcrop 



(>S 



lUlIJ-KTIX 22(^. ("iI-.Ol.OCV. 



ct' that particular formation, (jranitc and gneiss fragments which 
had Ijcen carried l)y the ice from the north are common. Large 
l)uuhlers or erratics, as they are callech are found scattered throughout 
the c<junty ; Ihc'se were (h-()])i)ed ihrectly from the ice or deposited by 
streams flowing from the front of the ice. 

In some (^f the cuts in drumHns along the lake shore are masses of 




I'li;. 13_'. — Stralifii'd clay m dnimlin at Lake tUiifr. 

stratified cla_\ ( iMgs. 132 and 133). This crumi)ling shows tliat there 
was some pushing after tlie drundin was formed. In other cuts are 
seen lenses of stratified material, sand and gra\-el. As has been men- 
tioned bel'ore, on the sides and at the southern ends of some of the 
drumlins are hillocks or sheets of stratified material (Fig. 134). Pos- 
sibl\- when conditions brought about the retreat oi the glacier, numer- 
ous streams llowed from the ice-front and numerous marginal lakes 
were formed and in these waters these deposits may luu^e been made. 



Ax Apple OKCiiARn Sukvkv of W'avxe Cuuxrv, \k\v York. 399 

The occurrence of eskers and kanics indicate, also, that glacial streams 
were not inactive. 

Origin. — The origin of the druniliu has been a nuich-discussed ({ues- 
tion. The more probable origin is that — by variations in current or 
drift supply the ice deposited more material at one ])oint than at 
another, producing the drumlins ])y successive additions, in a manner 
comparable with the formation of a sand-bar in a river/'= 




Fig. 133. — Folded slra/ificd clay in diiiiiilin al Lake Bluff. 

Dkumlixoids. 

This term is applied to rock hills eovered b\' a veneer of till which have 
the drumlin outline and which one might, at first glance, classifv as drum- 
lins. A study of ice-motion shows that there is a certain rhythm or eurve 
of erosion. Roches montonees are familiarly cited types of this law of 
ice-motion to produce rounded lenticular sl()])es. Drumlinoids are similar 
results only on a much larger scale. We find some of these northeast 
of Walworth. 



*Abridged from Tarr. ()ri,L,nn <>f Drumliii's American Geologist, Vol. XIII. 
1894, p. 394. 



4O0 



Bulletin 226. (iEOLOGY, 
Kame Areas. 







Gcrkie describes a kame area as a collection of " mounds and winding 
ridges, lunnniock}- and undulating like a tuml)led sea. The ground now 
swelling into long undulations, now rising suddenly into beautiful peaks 
and cones and anon curving up in sharp ridges and often wheeling sud- 
den 1\' around so as to 
enclose a lakelet of 
bright, clear water." 
This description is of 
a well-developed area. 
We do not find any 
such t\pical areas in 
Wayne county, but 
we do find some of a 
less subdued t_\'])e. In 
Marion to\vnshi]i thev 
are not infre(iuent 
( h'ig. 135 ). They arc 
made up of gravel 
and sand and were 
probaliK' formed at 
tlir tliiii edge of the 
ice b\' stream action 
as was described in a 
former paragraph. 
Kames are usually 
ass(^ciate(l with mo- 
raines. The time was 
too limited to permit 
of detailed mapping 
of the county, but 
fm-ther study will un- 
doubtedh slu)\\^ a belt of moraine runinng across the county. 

E.SKERS. 

These form another interesting feature. .\n esker is a long, narrow, 
winding ridge or collection of ridges made up of gravel and sand 
and bearing" a \er\- cl(^se resemblant-e to embankments. The drift 



[■K 



i,^. — V//<;/,7;.'(/ ,V(f)/(/ and .i;/-(/:'<7 mi siiir of dnimini 
/rec miles west of .]fciicd(iii Ccnirr. 



An ArrLE Orchard Survkv ov W.wsr. Couxrv, Xi'.w York. 401 




Fig. 135, — Kaiiic area north of Palmyra. 




Fig. 130. — Lul in Falinyra cskcr. 



4c)_' 



IUmj.etix 226. rJi:()L()(;\-. 



shows slratificalioii ruui^hly parallel to the surface outline (Fig. 13C)). 
Kskers owe their origin to glacial streams ; most probably subglacial 
streams, although in some cases they ma\- have been formed in super- 
glacial or engiacial streams. When the ice retreated these stream- 
deposits were left in the form of ridges. In the stud}- two cskers were 




Fig. 137. — Palmyra cskcr. 

ina])])ed. one north of I'alm} ra. and Ihe other north of Xewark, 
beginning near ll\de\il]e. hollowing are descriptions t)f these two 
eskers : 

Palmyra cskcr. — This is aliont four miles long, ex1 ending in a general 
north-south direction l)etween Marion and l'ahn_\ra. It has an indis- 
tinct, low northern end, then takes two indistinct and broken courses 




Vic. 138. — Hydcvillc cskcr. 



for a distance of one-half mile when the two unite to form a jiretty 
little kettle-hole. It continues for one-half mile in a ])ronounced ridge. 
tlu'U becomes indistinct again ; again takes on the form of a ridge and 
further is lost in a kam\' area. lieginning again as a low ridge it 
gradualh' becomes better develo])ed and contimies tor a distance of 



Ax Ai'.i'LE Okcmaui) Si'K\i;v oi- Wayne Counia', Ni:w York. 403 

a mile or more in a well-defined ridge, to be lost in the levelness of the 
eountr}'. The base at its widest point is 50 feet and the highest ])oint 
is 40-50 feet. Figs. 116 and 137 are photographs of this esker. 




i'K.;. 139. — Loiii: Islam! from Lake Bluff. 

llydcrdlc cskcr.- — h"ig. 138 shows a portion of this small esker, which 
begins abont one and one-half miles north of liydexille and extends 
for a mile in a general north-south direction. It begins in an indis- 
tinct ridge but soon assumes (|uite a distinct t}4)e and continues as 




Fig. 140. — I'ieiu from Nidiolas Foiiil looking iiorl'i across Soclits Bay. 



such for one-half mile, where there is an abrupt break, leaving a 
chamiel about 35 feel wide. It begins again in a kani}' area, and after 
continuing for one-half mile is lost in a le\'el area. The highest point 
Ls 35 feet and the greatest width about 50. 



4'>4 



i'>ui,Li-.i IN 226. (1l;oi>o(;v. 



0\i:r\vasii Areas. 

TliL'se liavc- hvvu HK'tilidiiiM! inukT (he discussion *jf i;Tavcllv soils (Fig. 
115). ■ Streams llowcd mit from hciicatli the ice, l)ur(lciiecl with a great 
mass of material collected from the overloaded, thin edge of the glacier. 




Fig, i4r.~Froiit Lake IVuff lonl-iui'^ r.r.v/ .vZ/c:,'/;/- llic Imr ihtoss Suihis Bay. CliarL-.s 
I^niiil is (III iJic c.vliciiic ri:^iil of Ihc l^icliirc. 

Idle watei", now heing miconlined h\ an ice channel, s])rea(l out and 
<le[)osited its hnrden in the form of a plain. The southward slope of 
S(;me of these pl.ain.s indicates tlie direction of flow of the waters. 




Fig. 142. — Sand Iiills al Sodits Point, 



Ax Apple ( )KfiLARD Survey of Wayne County, Xevv "^'ork. 405 




tn 



4o6 



P)U LLE'llX 2j6. (il':()L()(;V. 



PRESENT LAKE SHORE. 

The evenness of the hike shore is hrokL-n l)y (ireat Sodus, East, Port 
and lllind So(his l)a_\s. aeross all of whieh, and entirely elosin,^- them, 
exee])tini;' Sodus l!a\', are sand-ljars formed h\' a cheekini^ of the waters 
earr\-in<;- sediment to the lake and a consecjuent settlinc^ of the material. 
['dL;-s. 130 and 140 are \'iews of Sodus l'a_\-, and EiL;". 141 shows the har 
which almost futircl)' closes it. I'i.^'s. 142 and 143 show the sand hills 
around .Sudus Why. which were descrihed under sandv soils. 




l^^n;. 14.]. — Shcrr in'rlli of Onhirit 



The shore-line varies in different ways. Tn some places we tind 
larger ])el)l)lrs than in others, in some places more jichhles than in 
others; in other i)laces the heach is almost (.-ntircly made ui-) of sand: 
in SOUK- ])lact's it is higher than in others, ddiese x'ariations are due 
to \ariations in wind, supply of sediment, wave action, seasons, and 
the i)roteetion of the shore 1)_\- juttiui;- forelands. In some places the 
lake is cuttin,L;- hack into hills, forminc: cliffs alone: the shore with a 
narrow heach at their hases {Vv^. 130). In other places it is forming 
a heach in front of a low area. In sh(_)rt, it is buildini;' a. continuous 
l)each although warying from ])lace to place. Tn the hax's there is no 



An Apple Orchard Sitr\'i:y of Wavxe County, New York. 407 

such continuous l)cacli, for the action is not so j^reat as alon;:;- the 
exposed lake shore. Fig. 144 shows the beach west of Sockis Bay and 




Fig. 145. — Slmrc lliicc miles casl uf S' 



ciiu". i'iiy- 



Fig" 145 is a near view. ilUi.^lraling the cliaracler 
and form of tlie pel)l)les (hie U> the griuihng and 
rolHng action of the lake waters. 

\\'here a cliff is being cut tlu- uvnal cniilour is 
shown by Fig. 146. / / 



f/# 



'w c • ^ 



Fig. T46. — Beach bciiii^ formed at base of cliff. 

Laacon 




Fig. 147. — Beach he'u\<i formed in front of a loze area. 



4o8 



Bulletin 226. Geology, 




An Apple Ok( iiakd Sur\i-:v of W'avxk County, New York. 409 



Fig. 147 shows the condition where the heach is being built up in the 
form of a ritlge, enclosing a swampy or low area behind it. 

The lake, in cutting back into the land, displays the character of the 
material. In some places it is cutting into drumlins (Fig. 130), in others 
into the loam areas, in others into sand areas and in others into clays, 
showing horizontal strati- 
fication (Pig. 150), all of 
which have been treated 
of in the discussion of the 
soils. 

RIDGE (OLD LAKE 
SHORb:). 

Some of the features of 
the present lake shore are 
illustrated in the shore 
line of the (ilacial Lake 
Irocjuois as marked b_\- the 
ridge (big. 108), and the 
section on the ])rese'nt lake 
shore was inserted to 
show this similaritw W e 
find wave-cut cliffs as at 
Sodus, west of .^outh 
Sodus and Rose : we find 
the ridge enclosing low 
areas behind it and we 
find the ridge itself almost 

continuous as far as .Sodus. The reason for this is that the lake was 
receiving far more sediment than it could convenienth- ilispose of, so it 
had to deposit it along the shore. The reason wh\- the ridge is not so 
continuous after leaving Sodus is that here there was a 1)ay where the 
waters were more quiet and their force was s<Muewhat broken l)y the 
drumlins which rose as islands. This ridge is made up of gravel and 
sand with the variations that are seen in the present lake shore. There 
is. though, some clay owing to the weathering of the pebbles. Fig. 148 
is a cut in a gravel ridge at Rose, which is part of the old shore line. 




I'^IG. 149. — Grai'c! pn uonn ,1/ i uniin,' i nncr. 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



410 Ik'LLIiTIX 226. (iK()lJ)(,\ 

000 929 930 

Investigations sliow that there has l)een a tilting of the hind in the 
northeastern porticjn of om' country. Jn Wayne county the rise from 
west to east amounts to ahout a foot for every mile as is shown h_\' levels 
taken along" the ridge for the Ivochester and Sodus Bay Electric Railway 
Company. 

xoRLdi Oh" idih: Riuc;]': (old lake iujttoai). 

The topography north of the ridge is (|uite suggestive of an old lake 
bottom in that il is cpiite level (Fig. 100). The nature of the soils, too, 

is e\'idence ( d' the existence (")f this old 

lake. That has been treated earlier 
and needs no fuller discussion now. 
hdg. 141; is a gravel pit north of 
Ontario (enter, which deposit was 
fonneij In lake water. Fig. 150 
>ho\\s slratiiied clay of lake origin. 

The generalized section north of the 
ridge iua\ he shown 1)\' hdg. 151. 

h'roin th.e ridge of gravel north we 
Ind a gra\'el!\', sand\- area followed 1)\- 
a more sand\- and less gravelly area 
which is in tuni followed 1)_\- a sandy 
I area, l-'arlhest north is the lake clay. 
The island drnmlins in the old hay 
of Fake Iro(|nois are interesting 
features. Around some of the islands 
extends a heach mark which is at 
the same level as the ridge. Areas 
of stratified material are fomid asso- 
ciated with these islands. These were 
dei)0sited in Fake !ro((noi>: st.nnewhat like l)ars are being deposited 
in some ba^•s at the present time. 




Fig. 150. — ./.(//,■(■ (7(/v lln-cr iiiih-s fcsi 
of S(hIhs lyoy. 




CI. 









Fir,. 151. — (ioicralizcd seclicii fnnii riih^r nortli /</ liilcc slwrc. 



